Death Of A Sales Man Essays - English-language Films, Films

Death Of A Sales Man was a good on in that all the charters were not wearing masks. Well anywise Willy Loman was played by Dustin Hoffman and well he did a great job portraying his charter. And he did very well. The move well little slow to the start but after it introduced all the charts and the things starting falling in place then that is when everything came clear. But I really feel sorry for Willy but in the same persificted I am pissed off at him, but he is cheating in his wife and well in my mind I dont think that is a good idea. But his sons take most of the flak cus he makes them out to something they are not. See in my mind Willy is a dreamer and well he wishes that he and his family could always live the good live but in fact they cant. He lives in the burbs and well he is also in a dead end job, that will never take him or his family any where. His family consisted of his loving wife Linda, she was the back bone of the family she kept everything in live and going in the right direction for Willy and his sons. Then there was Happy, he was the player and tycoon and always looking for recognition from his father, but never really got it. Because there was Biff his pride and joy he thought the world revolved around him. Then there was Charlie Willy only true friend ever thought they would fight on a regular basic that still were friend and Charlie ever help Willy out with a little side cash just to keep things running at home. But still Willy is always in a dream state it is like he is taking drugs and seeing theses thins and imagining them. He should have tried to get some help but he was to staborn. In to I see so many of my own friend day dreaming cus well, dreaming is good because I you think about and Theater

Googles Strategic Plan Analysis Essay

Googles Strategic Plan Analysis Essay Google Strategy Plan Analysis Essay Google Strategy Plan Analysis Essay Google Inc. is one of the largest and most powerful technology companies dealing with internet related products and services. Although the company started from a humble beginning, it has grown significantly, and developed some of the most convenient applications and online services that we use today. These applications include Gmail, Google Earth, Google Chats, and Google Maps among others. The company has managed to win the competition against former giant corporations such as Yahoo, Alta Vista and Microsoft. The current paper presents a strategic plan for this giant technology company for a period of five years starting from 2014. Four strategic goals discussed in this paper include; to become the primary interface of the world, to improve the quality and access to the internet, to â€Å"own the home† and to control more of the purchase cycle. By becoming the primary interface of the world, the company plans to be the main choice in all internet and non-internet related oper ations of our daily living. In terms of â€Å"owning the home† the company plans to have gadgets and appliances that will be used in all aspects of living, at home and even at the workplace. By controlling more of the purchase cycle, Google plans to influence the commercial activities’ patterns of its customers and increase its share of the financial pie by indulging more into the commercial world. Improvement of the quality and access to the internet will be the key goal of the company’s expansion and efficiency as most of its activities require reliable and convenient internet connections. The Most Dominant Search Tool The most dominant search tool on the web today is Google; a company that was born in 1998 in a garage, in the minds of Sergey Brin and Larry Page. Google has seen a rapid and steady growth and success story from nothing to becoming the dominant search engine in less than 8 years. Today, Google Inc. is the largest multinational company that specializes in various internet-based products and services. These products and services include software, online advertising technologies, cloud computing and search services among others. The company has several subsidiary companies such as YouTube, DoubleClick, Songza and feedBurner. On the 10th of August 2015, Google announced the reorganization of its interests as a holding company, and became the leading subsidiary of Alphabet Inc. After the restructuring process Google became the umbrella company for the entire Alphabet’s internet interest (Google, 2015). Over the years, Google has made significant strides in the world of internet related products and services, creating some of the most widely used online services that had previously not been thought of. These products and services include a combination of search engine options, photo and file sharing platforms, Google maps, operating systems and applications that run in a vast array of devices among many other life changing inventions and ideas. It is evident that Google made these strides in the contemporary world owing brilliant ideas and strategic planning and effective implementation of such strategies. This paper seeks to explore Google’s strategic plan, paying attention to its mission and vision, assets, competitiveness, challenges and opportunities, and its strategic goals. Mission and Vision Statements Since 1998, Google has grown according to the guidelines provided in its Mission and Vision statement, which has led it to its current position as one of the most powerful and valuable brands over the globe. Its Mission statement outlines the strategies of business, such as the creation of new products and services. It is focused on innovation and excellence. Furthermore, Google’s Vision statement pushes the company to achieve new heights through rapid innovation and excellence. The company’s success can be attributed to the company’s efforts to fulfill their Mission and Vision statements. Google’s Vision statement is â€Å"to provide access to the world’s information in one click.† This vision statement reflects the nature of the company’s business. The most popular product of Google is the search engine service, which provides easy access to information to and from people around the world. There are three fundamental variables in this Vision statement; accessibility, world’s information and one click. The company gets world’s information by searching webpages. It then maintains databases that contain the indexes of these webpages. Finally, the firm fulfils the accessibility variable by providing its search engine services to all people around the world with access to the worldwide web. The one click component here signifies the ease of access to information to anyone and anywhere on the planet. Google’s Mission statement is â€Å"to organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful.† Since its foundation, the company has focused on creating proprietary algorithms that maximize its effectiveness and ensure that people have access to the information they need. The Mission Statement has four variables; world’s information, organization, universal accessibility and usefulness. The company effectively follows its Mission and Vision statements by searching webpages, and organizing the information through its proprietary algorithm. It then provides universal accessibility to this information through their search engine services available worldwide. Summary of Internal Assets Assessment The main stakeholders of Google include; investors, users, employees, advertisers and developers. Google provides services to more than 12 billion users every month and this translates to more than 70 percent of the world searches. In the US, Google has more than 89 percent of the mobile search market. This is a huge clientele base and the strategies are aimed at keeping them happy and satisfied. Google has more than 53,600 full time employees and generates about 66 billion dollars in revenue globally (Statista, 2015). Their guiding organizational value and culture focus on the user, and they believe in doing something â€Å"really well.† The company also believes in fast internet connections and â€Å"democracy† on the web. The provision of fast online services and the ability to choose from an assortment of available services help Google to achieve their mission, and it is evident they have become the largest online goods and service provider among the available. Goog le has achieved these milestones by providing valuable and organized online services at convenient level that is imperfectly imitable, like in mobile gadgets and devices (Jurevicius, 2014). Summary of External Environment Factors Google’s external factors are mainly based on technological changes, and they serve either as opportunities or threats to the company. The outlook for the industry and market is very promising, especially if the company will be able emphasize its strengths and work to seal its weak points. The most significant political factors among Google’s external environmental factors include; globalization, stable political climate in major markets and state-sponsored online companies that pose a threat. These political factors in Google’s external environment are mainly opportunities. Globalization increases the demand for online advertising. The stable political climate in major markets minimizes obstacles to the firm’s expansion. Economic factors that will impact Google include rapid economic growth of developing countries and continued economic stability in major markets. These factors present an opportunity for growth as they create a momentum that can be exploi ted by the company for global expansion. As for social and cultural factors, there is a rising diversity of users in today’s world, which presents an opportunity, and as noted, the increase in the use of social media advertising poses a threat to Google’s main revenue producer. Technological factors include the significantly rising growth rates of internet access in developing nations and rapid adoption of mobile gadgets and devices globally. An improvement on the available mobile-friendliness of available online products and creation of new ones to meet changes in global markets will boost the company’s growth. Despite the fact that Google generates most of its income online, the company is subject to ecological and environmental factors. The increasing awareness, spread of environmentalism, and growing interests in sustainable businesses present an opportunity for Google to integrate these factors into its product and service delivery. This will improve customer responses as most people perceive environmentalism and sustainability in a very positive way. Legal factors have a significant influence on the operations of the company. The increased regulations on online privacy and intellectual property rights give a chance to Google to improve its privacy measures and protect its clients, in addition to discouraging the violation of intellectual property rights. This will give clients a sense of security and they will be happy with Google’s online services. These factors present an opportunity for the company to achieve its vision and strategy, which will be faced with a few challenges, although the company has a potential to overcome these threats and accomplish its mission and vision (Google, 2014). Assessment of Industry Competitiveness Google is well suited to compete with companies that offer similar goods and services. With the ever changing and rising diversity of internet users, tapping this opportunity will give Google a competitive advantage over potential rivals. There is reported an increase in social media usage, which can be perceived as a threat as some social media websites like Facebook are being used for advertising. However, Google still has an advantage, since its ads are found in different websites providing different kinds of information to a wide variety of clientele. Based on Porter’s Five Forces analysis on Google, competitive rivalry exerts a significant force on the company. Threats of substitution and new entries are moderate considerations to the business industry environment. The bargaining powers of both suppliers and buyers are minimally significant factors, and Google should focus on addressing the strong forces of competition. The diverse set of products comes with a diverse set of competitors, and the only significant threat is the low switching cost to other similar companies (Smithson, 2015). Summary of Opportunities and Identified Key Challenges There are numerous opportunities that can be a boost to Google if they are exploited to their full potential. These include The driverless car that Google is working on could significantly improve Google’s income in addition to bringing convenience in the society, especially for people who are unable to drive. Google’s Nest is developing â€Å"the internet of things.† This is a low level Operating System(OS) meant to run on a variety of devices, creating a communication layer like a weave that will allow devices with low level OS to communicate, making it easy to control them. Robotics projects. Google owns several robotics projects that create a variety of robots ranging from robotic dogs to disaster response robots. Other Moonshot projects in their development stages, such as project Loon and Project Glass. There are also key challenges faced by Google today, and moving into the future. These include; Overdependence on search. Today, more than 80 percent of the profits made by Google are generated from search. This shows that they are heavily dependent on search services, indicating that if the search service collapses, the company will face extreme difficulties in raising revenues. State-sponsored online companies pose a threat to Google, as in the case of the Chinese government’s control of large firms in China. Strategic Goals Google has a strategic plan to be effected in the course of five years starting from 2014. This plan consists of four strategic goals. To become the primary interface of the world. In our day-to-day activities, we connect, create and discover, and we use a bunch of tools that primarily make our lives better. Although these tools have constantly changed over the years, they are a fundamental part of who we are. The primary strategy of Google here is to become the ultimate life tool, to be the primary lenses between the customer and everything else, to be the link between a person and the world around him or her. There is power and beauty in connecting the things that are used to shape the world around us. Google seeks to provide the option to live almost every aspect of our daily lives through its interface. This strategy will tighten their hold on search in addition to opening up new revenue models. For instance, a Google made gadget wakes a person up in the morning, he or she runs on a Google Glass enabled treadmill, and then a self-driving car takes that person to work. At work, the person spends the entire day using Google business applications on Google devices, ordering food, chatting with family and friends on same devices, and then watches TV shows in the evening when he or she gets home (Wilson, 2014). To improve the quality and access to the internet. Google’s operations, growth and the speed of innovation are closely related to and dependent on widely available and fast internet connections. Today, Google is exploring all possible pathways to achieve this goal. Google fiber will continuously rollout to different areas around the globe, putting pressure on other similar service providers to deliver cheaper and faster services. This strategy can also be implemented within the wireless industry, carrying out small implementations to meet customer demands while staying away from government watchdogs. In the near future, Google will facilitate more high speed Wi-Fi networks similar to the one in Chelsea, New York, in public transportation and neighborhoods to make more partnerships between Google and companies with similar visions. Projects like Loon will create additional connectivity, aiming at connecting more than 50% of the world’s population that is not yet connected by 2018 (Wilson, 2014). To â€Å"own the home† The house or home is one of the main focuses of Google’s strategic plan. A home provides a self-contained environment that gives opportunities for technological innovation, especially when it comes to connectivity, automation and content. Google’s acquisition of Nest puts the company in a leading position to build on smoke alarms and digital thermostats to conquer the emerging connected home and security market. These markets are coveted by cable and telecommunication companies, but Google has an upper hand when it uses central development platforms such as Android (Wilson, 2014). Content is the main aspect of Google’s strategy for the home. Competitive TV products in specific Google Fiber Areas and Chromecast are turning into solid content platforms, with access to contents such as NFL among other deals to expand its Google Play service. New content owners are continuously brought to YouTube Platform in paid YouTube channels, generating more revenues. Automation is also on the strategic plan, with companies like Boston Dynamics aimed to create robots that will help out in executing household chores. To control more of the purchase cycle. Currently, Google only enjoys a small portion of the commerce pie, which they seek to increase significantly by 2018. Google plans to use online ads to influence different aspects of products purchased. For instance, they seek to connect online advertisement to retail shops and stores by sending taxi to pick the customer for free and take them to the store to purchase the item they clicked on an advertisement online. Google is also expanding product comparison tools by offering the â€Å"recent press† around Google’s Flight Search evolution. They also plan to add purchasing functions in the main content platforms such as YouTube, Chromecast and Glass. Possible moves to increase their percent of the purchase cycle in the near future will include acquisition of more companies with unique yet fundamental products and services (Wilson, 2014). SMART Objectives for Each Strategic Goal To become the primary interface of the world. To become the primary choice of connection by 2020 To create gadgets and devices that will enhance convenience and connectivity in day-to-day life To provide primary and secondary connections between gadgets in the office To improve the quality and access to the internet. To provide fast internet connections with other partners in major cities by 2020. To expand Google Fiber network by 150 percent in the next five years. To provide low cost fast internet connections in 100 cities in the developing countries that will exhibit potential for growth by 2020. To â€Å"own the home† To set up content streaming services including big league games like the NFL To establish and maintain a strong customer base for Nest’s products, like smoke alarms and thermostats among other. To provide affordable â€Å"home office† working packages for users in major cities in the next two years. To control more of the purchase cycle. To increase the share of purchase cycle by 10 percent in every financial year until 2020 To use online advertisements to market goods and services offered by Google and its subsidiaries in order to increase revenue by 15-20 percent by 2018 To roll out more products and services that are market oriented in the next financial year. Placeholder Sections Marketing Plan Google is more than just a search engine as it specializes in technology and innovation. The search engine serves as a window to all sorts of webpages, videos, clouding books and music. The company’s main income is generated by an advertising program called AdWords. The program uses Keyword-based ads that are sold to companies. For instance, if one sells spectacles and sunglasses, they bid against other similar dealers for the highest place in the order at which the search results appear to customers (Studymarketing.org, n.d.). Implementation Plan The company will invest available resources in implementing plans while paying attention to the small details, especially regarding customer preferences and satisfaction. Google is also willing to invest significant amount of resources to smaller firms with the capacity and the knowhow to create revolutionary gadgets, inventions and services. Other companies with similar interests that are looking for strong, both short and long-term partnership with Google will be highly considered. The rolling out of better quality and access to the internet, especially in the developing world will open up opportunities to exploit numerous untapped potential for the numerous products and services offered by Google. Human Resources Plan One of the main human resource tricks by Google is to make employees happy and satisfied. A team of experts will be hired regularly to test employees and gather information on how to improve products and service provision to customers. Keen attention is to be paid to the small things that have a great impact, such as the welfare of employees, namely health, and ensuring minimal wastage of precious resources such as time. Data will be used to establish the way of thinking among employees, and how to better manage the operations of the company. Financial Plan There is a concerted financial plan put in place that ensures the growth of revenues in an accelerating pace. The available resources will be invested in key areas that exhibit maximum effectiveness in managing costs and generating revenues. Resources will be made available to new expansion projects, innovations and developments that show great potential for growth. A team of experts will be working round the clock to forecast possible future financial results and determine the best pathways to invest the company’s resources along with the pursuit of the short and long-term goals. Contingency Plan Diversification will be a key goal for the company going into the future. Generating income from different angles will shield the company from collapsing. However, in case of any unfortunate occurrence and if Google is adversely affected, the company has set aside enough resources to raise the company back to its feet and start operations again. The company has agreements with other financial institutions that will ensure provision of enough resources to fund the company back to operation in case of a disaster.

Most Common Attribute Error Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Most Common Attribute Error - Essay Example According to Huczynski & Buchanan, (2013), fundamental attribution error is a â€Å"tendency to attribute another’s behavior to dispositional qualities, rather than the situation itself.† (p. 34). For this type of error to occur, there must be a valid situational factor in that people end up overestimating the dispositional attributions. Psychologists have proved that humans have a tendency to judge others without having any prior knowledge of what actually happened and thus apply dispositional attributions. Since it is something impressed in a society, Brookwell (2013) proposed that this type of attribution error is purely a cultural bias because it focuses on personal responsibilities and not behavior. Self-serving bias is a tendency to stable, dispositional factors and failures to temporary, and its link to self-presentation and self-esteem (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2013). Therefore, if an outcome, either success or failure, contradicts expectations, people will be likely to make situational attributions. When taking exams, a good number of students have hopes of performing well. However, when the results are out and they realize they have failed or performed far below their expectations, they always justify their failure with external factors, which are not controllable in most cases. Therefore, when people fail in cases where they put in a lot of efforts, they always attribute their failure using situational factors. Considerations that affect self-serving bias include projection of self-esteem in future, emotional state, desire for positive self-esteem, and culture. When people perform well with lots of efforts, they attribute their success to dispositional factors. In most cases, talking about failure is something everyone tries to avoid because of the unexpected reactions from friends and family. In the context of failing an exam, it is very easy for people to know even if they are not told

Healthcare finance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Healthcare finance - Assignment Example Variability in contribution further implies variability in marginal cost equation because contribution is an element of the equation. In addition, contribution has direct impact on profit and change in the environment, with volume remaining constant, means lower profit to volume ration because of lower contribution. Further, reduced marginal cost, due to discount the discounted fee for service environment shifts the break-even point. Consequently, contribution influences change in the other three elements of the analysis (Gapenski, 2008). Ability to identify factors to cost is one of the important attributes of cost drivers. This allows for cost determination and ability to control costs. Another important attribute of an effective cost driver, which transcends to effectiveness of cost allocation, is the ability to identify the level at which cost occur, a feature that facilitate understanding of costs and their control (Gapenski, 2008; Kinney and Raiborn,

Marketing of Company Revive Gum that Removes Stress Essay

Marketing of Company Revive Gum that Removes Stress - Essay Example Products such as energy drinks and vitamins have become a popular commodity amongst consumers. Moreover, the features of our product extended far beyond just the traditional needs of the customer. The innovation of making a product that not only is packed with energy boosting supplements such as L-Carnitine, treated for failing memory, Echinacea, proven to improve immune system response, ginseng, but would also whiten teeth. The gum industry according to studies is also a huge market accumulating for 60% of the market share and is estimated to be worth $19 billion in sales. Also, gum is such a cheap commodity that is purchased by every demographic group from children to senior citizens. Hence, the group decided that this would be a great market to enter in. Revive, is an innovative gum product that is scientifically proven to reduce stress in everyday basis. Revive uses all natural vitamins and ingredients that are proven to enhance memory, diminish stress, and enable the person to a chieve unbelievable focus. Revive uses key vitals ingredients such as B12, B-6, L-Arginine that energizes the nervous system. Revive also uses all natural ingredients such as Fluoride and Calcium to whiten teeth. Revive is the only product in the market possesses all these features. One of the major problems identified in today’s society is the fact that people are engaged in activities that produce stress. Our study proved that around 70% of the population was heavily involved in stress-related activities. Clearly, a solution was needed to resolve that particular problem. Furthermore, research showed that people admitted that they are a better person as far as coping with stress is concerned. In addition, 60% of the people approved that dealing with stress in a natural way gives them a positive direction in life. Most people also reported feeling weak and lethargic when faced with stress. Clearly, people wanted to feel better and live better, which became a critical componen t in developing our product. Hence, as smart marketers, we decided it was a smart idea to create a product that not only whitens teeth but also acts as a stress reliever.

Water Mist Replacement for Halon Extinguishers

Water Mist Replacement for Halon Extinguishers CHAPTER ONE: 1.1: Introduction Choosing the best fire suppression technology is not an easy task. It even involves discussing risks and operations with insurance companies. The most relevant concern of a fire safety engineer is the protection of life which entails the safe evacuation of personnel. The starting point of a suppression system is a risk analysis to reduce the potential occurrence of a fire. This is followed by the control of the damage and the recovery effort or emergency response associated with the means of fire suppression adopted. The quality of installation, efficiency and maintenance of the suppression system adopted cannot be over-emphasised. The phase out of halons, due to environmental concerns, has lead to forceful development of new fire prevention strategies and technologies that are efficient, as well as environmentally friendly technologies. Fire protection halons were phased out of production in developing countries due to the quest to regulate the use of ozone depleting substances(ODS) as reflected in the Montreal Protocol,1987(London Amendment 1990, and Copenhagen amendment1992). Fire suppression agents have two (2) toxicological aspects to them: The toxicity of the agent The toxicity of combustion products of the agent. Several new fire suppression systems have been developed such as inert and halocarbon gaseous systems, water mist systems, gas and aerosol generators. Fire has been extinguished with water since ancient times. Water in the normal form is not a suitable suppression medium of all classes of fire. The efficiency of water in suppression is enhanced by its use of water in form of mists. Survey by Mawhinney and Richardson in 1996 showed that about 50 agencies worldwide are involved in the research and development of water fire mist and suppression systems. Water mist in fire suppression does not behave like true gaseous agents and is affected by fire size, the degree of obstruction, ceiling and the ventilation conditions of the compartment. To effectively suppress a fire, a water mist system must generate and deliver optimum sized droplets with an adequate. 1.2: Objectives and Structure of Dissertation This project aims at studying the water mist as a replacement for halons systems in the extinguishment of fires. This replacement is a direct consequence of the phase out of halons due to environmental issues and the need to find a drop-in replacement or a suitable alternative in areas where high level of fire safety is required and the cost of fatalities is too high. Chapter 2 2.1: Overview of Fire Suppression To suppress fires, the type of fire needs to be identified. The class of the fire to be extinguished also determines the type of extinguisher that can be used. There are six (6) types of fires: Class A FIRES: These involve flammable or combustible solids such as wood, rubber, fabric, paper and some plastics. Class B FIRES: These are fires involving flammable and combustible liquids or liquefiable solids such as oil, alcohol, petrol, paint and liquefiable waxes.[9] Class C FIRES: These are fires involving flammable gases such as natural gas, hydrogen, propane, butane.[9] Class D FIRES: These are fires involving combustible metals, such as sodium and potassium.[9] Class E FIRES: These are fires involving any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but including electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire, with a resultant electrical shock risk if a conductive agent is used to control the fire.[9] http://www.sqa.org.uk/e-learning/FirstLineO2CD/page_06.htm Class F FIRES: These fires involve cooking fats and oils, especially in industrial kitchens. The temperature of these fats and oil on fire is much greater than that of other flammable liquids. 2.2: Means of Fire Suppression The aim of fire suppression is to provide cooling, control the spread of the fire as well as extinguish the fire. The behaviour of a fire is charcterised by the fire triangle which has fuel, oxygen and heat as its three sides. Combustion process is represented by: Fuel + O2 HEAT H2O + CO2 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn2.1 The combustion process is an exothermic reaction, involving a fuel and oxygen. The ratio of fuel to air must be within the flammability limits of the fuel for combustion to occur. The Lower Flammability Limit (LFL) is the minimum concentration of fuel vapour in air, below which a flame cannot be supported in the presence of an ignition source. The Upper Flammability Level (UFL) is the maximum concentration of fuel vapour in air, above which a flame cannot be supported. Stoichiometric Mixture is the ratio of fuel in oxygen that requires minimal energy to support a flame. A branch of the triangle must be removed for the fire to be extinguished. Fires can either be smoldering or flaming combustion. Smoldering occurs when solids such as wood or plastics burn at or on the surface. It usually involves the release of toxic gases and can be difficult to extinguish. Flaming combustion is a gas phase phenomenon that involves the release of visible and infrared radiation. This type of fire generates much more heat. The extinguishing of a fire involves either chemical or physical mechanisms. Physical mechanism: Involves the removal of one side of the fire triangle. This can be done by either blanketing the fire (causing the fuel and air to be separated) or by removing the heat source using an agent with a high heat capacity/ latent heat of vaporization (this will cool the flame by absorbing the heat). Physical mechanism could be thermal or dilution. Thermal physical effect involves adding non-reactive gas to a fire plume leading to a reduction in the flame temperature. This is achieved by the distribution of the heat generated to a larger heat area. The heat capacity of the introduced agent determines the efficiency of the process. On the other hand, for dilution physical effect, the collision frequency of oxygen molecules with the fuel is lowered when the additional gas is introduced into the fuel-air mixture. This effect is quite minimal and negligible. Chemical mechanism: This is the use of an extinguishing agent or its degradation product to disrupt the chain reaction for sustaining combustion. This entails inhibition by halogen atoms. Most good suppressants apply both the physical and the chemical mechanisms. The type of hazard associated with an area determines the fire protection system that will be put in place. Halons have been used in a wide range of applications. Other alternatives include: Water Sprinkler Systems: This is a very common type of fixed protection that offers safe protection to limit structural damage. The cost of installing water sprinkler systems into existing structures is quite expensive. They are better at protecting structures than its contents [11]. The reliability of water sprinkler system has encouraged its wide use. Accidental discharge is uncommon with water sprinkler systems. Water sprinklers have a much slower response than other systems. They also cause a considerable secondary damage. They cannot be used on live electrical equipment and flammable liquids, but they are used widely in computer and control rooms as well as storage rooms in the USA. Detectors: This involves the use of high sensitive smoke detection. This is not exactly an active fire protection approach but it serves as an initiator to other fire protection systems [2]. Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is widely used in gaseous based fire extinguishing systems. There are two types of carbon dioxide system depending on the manner by which they are stored. These are high pressure and low pressure carbon dioxide systems. It is a clean agent and has a good penetrating ability. This makes it safe for use on live electrical equipment. They are also used in unoccupied spaces such as computer and control rooms. Carbon dioxide causes very minimal direct or secondary damage and allows the installation being put back to immediate use after a fire. It is however toxic and cannot be used in total flooding situations. Carbon dioxide cannot also be used in situations where weight and space are important. High concentrations of carbon dioxide are required for extinguishment and as such they are bulky and heavy. They cannot be used in manned areas because they reduce the oxygen concentration to levels below life support and thus cannot be set in automatic mode. Carbon dioxide systems are generally fast acting and cost effective. Carbon dioxide has also found use in record storage, flammable liquid fires, chemical processing equipment, turbine generators, marine applications, computer rooms and shipboard machinery. Inert Gases: inert gases in use for fire suppression are majorly argon and nitrogen mixtures. These are electrically non-conductive fire suppressants. The mechanism behind their use is the lowering of the oxygen concentration of air to that below the lower flammability point (LFL). They are not liquefied gases and they are bulky because they are stored at high pressure. The concentration of inert gases released in the hazardous area is high because they have densities that are similar to that of air. Their response time is not very fast and so they are not efficient in situations where the rate of fire spread is high. Inert gases do not decompose thermally and thus they form no breakdown products [2]. Inert gases can cause an extreme decrease in the composition of oxygen in the body accompanied by an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide leading to loss of consciousness or death and as such health and safety issues have to be considered in its use. Inert gases have found wi de acceptance because they pose no environmental problems. They are not ozone depleting substances neither do they contribute to global warming. They are employed in computer and control rooms, record storage, flammable liquid fires and shipboard machinery [2]. Halocarbon Gases: These are hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons with zero ozone depleting potentials. They are however greenhouse gases and are governed by the Kyoto protocol and hence its release counts towards the national emissions inventory of global warming gases. Halocarbons are electrically non-conductive, are clean agents and are not bulky in terms of space and weight. Foam Systems: Foam systems could be low, medium or high expansion systems. Foam systems are efficient for extinguishing liquid pool fires and large cable fires. In this case, the foam acts as a barrier between the fire and the supply of oxygen. The use of chemical dispersants to clean up after its use has limited the wide use of foam systems. Furthermore the use of smoke detectors for its activation limits its speed of response. They cannot be used to protect any substance that reacts violently with water. Foams systems are often used with water sprinklers. This increases the efficiency of the systems. Foam systems have found use in the extinguishment of flammable liquid fires, engine compartments and shipboard machinery. Dry Powder: Powders have very high response time for extinguishing fires but have no cooling effect. They thus become ineffective as soon as it settles [2]. They are limited in application to extinguishing flammable liquid fires as well as engine spaces. Fine Solid Particulates: This system is used in combination with halocarbon gases and inert gases [2]. They have the advantage of reduced wall and surface losses relative to water mist and particle size is easier to control[2]. They however pose problems to sensitive equipment and cannot be used for explosion suppression applications because they are generated at high temperatures. Fine solid particulates can only be used in unmanned areas because of the problems associated with inhalation of particulate substances. Water Mist: This employs the use of fine water sprays, usually less than 100 microns in diameter. Water mists can be used on flammable liquid fires, as well as electrical equipment. They are not as effective on small or slow burning fires. Water mist installations pose problems in their design and fabrication. Hybrid Systems: Hybrid systems combine one or more of the above fire protection system. A common example of this is the combination of water mist systems and carbon dioxide. There are two methods of applying fire extinguishing agents-Total Flooding and Local Application. Total Flooding: They are operated automatically and manually. It entails applying an extinguishing agent to an enclosed space to achieve a concentration of the extinguisher that is capable of putting out the fire. This method is the most common system of application Local Application: The agent is applied directly onto the fire plume or the affected enclosure. Portable fire extinguishers are the most common forms of this approach. This method is also known as streaming application. There is an increase in the need for the phasing out of halons and this has brought the search for the perfect or drop-in replacement. The department of trade and industry in 1995 listed checklists for the selection of alternatives to halons in critical uses situations as: Fire fighting effectiveness: This involves the speed of fire suppression, the post fire hold time, the ability of the alternative to permeate, the elimination of the risk of reignition, the suitability of the alternative to the fire hazard. Ease of Installation: Ease of maintenance, pipe work, and cost of installation, cost of refill, floor space and weight, system re-instate time, and availability of the extinguisher. Hazards to occupants: Toxicity, noise levels, pressurisation, inhalation, visibility, safety as regards electrical work, thermal decomposition products [2]. Discharge effect on equipment: water damage, clean up, corrosion, thermal shock. Environmental acceptability: Ozone depletion potential, atmospheric lifetime, and global warming potential. Discharge damage: This entails clean up of the agent after use, water damage, thermal shock and corrosion. Esso Australia, while looking for alternatives to halons on their installations considered the following issues [14]: Effectiveness at extinguishing fires Environmental effects (a zero ozone depleting and global warming potential) of the agent before use and after thermal decomposition. Toxicity level and a safety margin between its No Observed Adverse Effects Level (NOAEL value) and the extinguishing concentration required Third party approval from regulatory bodies and safety partners such as International Maritime Organisation (IMO), NFPA, and EPA or Underwriters laboratory Organisations. Level of engineering required to modify an existing halon protected installations. Availability as regards to installation and maintenance at a reasonable cost. 2.2: Health and Safety Issues Considering the health and safety in the UK, there is no specific regulation as regards choice of fire extinguishing systems. Otherwise fire risks and risk from the use of extinguishment can be categorised under risks at work. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 stipulates all risks at work are to be assessed and prevented where ever it is reasonably practicable, controlled. In cases where fire extinguishing systems contain toxic substances then the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988 (COSHH regs) will also apply. The basis of the two regulations is the prevention rather than control of the risk. 2.3: Environmental regulations The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has prohibited the use of new halon systems from 1994, but accepts the use of existing ones. The EU has banned its use onboard vessels by the end of 2003. The following are regulations that are put in place to phase out the use of halons. The Montreal protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone layer- the Montreal protocol, signed by 25 countries on the 16th of September, 1987 is an international treaty for the control of the production and use of ozone depleting substances. It involves the restriction and eventual prohibition of the production, distribution and use of Ozone Depleting Substances. A copy of this document is attached in Appendix 1. The EC regulations: This European legislation was put in place to further tighten the restriction on the ban of ozone depleting substances. EC Regulation 3093/94 came into force on the 23rd of December 1994. EC Regulation 3093/94 is directly binding in all EU Member States and does not require any national implementing legislation. The new Regulation EC 2037/2000 came into force on 1 October 2000, replacing the Regulation 3093/94. The enforcement requires the use of bodies such as the HM Customs and Excise concerning import of controlled substances. The Department of the Environment proposes to implement these arrangements through enforcement regulations made under both the Environmental Protection Act 1990 s.140 and the European Communities Act 1972.(EC REGULATION) The new requirements are applicable to the production, distribution, use and recovery, and control of hazardous substances. The regulations also require the recovery of used controlled substances from certain equipment, s uch as fire protection systems, for disposal or recycling, during servicing and maintenance procedures of equipment. A copy of the regulation is attached to Appendix 2. The Victorian Environment Protection Legislation for the Control of Ozone Depleting substances (Victorian Government Gazette No.S57, 1990) this piece of legislation depicts the Australian governments compliance, reliance and advocacy to the implementation of the Montreal protocol on the phasing out of halon use [14]. Environmental Protection agency: Under the Clean Air Amendment, the United States Environmental Protection agency, EPA analysed various substances that could substitute fire extinguishing agents that destroy the ozone layer. These substances also have low global warming potential and low Atmospheric lifetime. The SNAP program (Significant New Alternatives Policy) is used by the EPA to replace the use of halons with environmentally friendly systems in the United States. The Clean Air Act was signed into law in 1990. With this Act, the US banned the production and import of new halons 1211, 1301 and 2402 from the 1st of January 1994 in compliance with the Montreal Protocol. The US government also imposed excise tax on halons through specialized training and proper recycling and disposal. Chapter Three: Halon Systems Halon is the generic name for bromine contained halogenated hydrocarbons. Halons systems were first installed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In the gaseous form, halons are excellent fire extinguishers. Halons are mostly employed in situations where fire safety standards are high. Halons are identified by a four digit number. The numbering system is assigned by the number of carbon, number of fluorine, chlorine and bromine atoms respectively. Halon 1301, containing carbon, fluorine and bromine is used in total flooding applications while halon 1211, containing carbon, fluorine, chlorine and bromine is used as hand held portable extinguishers. The two common halon types described are effective in extinguishing classes A, B and C fires. These halons are preferred because they exhibited: high efficiency in suffocating combustion, availability in volume at reasonable cost, high storage stability, low electrical conductivity, as well as acceptable toxic properties. 3.1: Characteristics of Halons Halons interfere with the chemical reactions which take place during a fire. The properties of halons allow for its use in most situations and thus most of its applications are linked to particular characteristics. These principal applications include: Clean fire fighting agent: Halons leave no residue after use. This eliminates secondary damages and keeping loss caused by the fire to a minimum [12]. Electrically non-conductive: This property makes it suitable for safe application on fires involving electrical equipment. It will prevent exposure of fire fighters to electric shock. Low toxicity: This property makes halons acceptable and in most cases halon flooding systems are set in automatic mode by default. They can also be used to extinguish fires while people are present in the protected room. Halon flooding systems do not displace so much oxygen which can lead to suffocation[12] Rapid response: Halons are effective for rapid knockdown of flames. This property is mostly essential for class B fires involving liquid and liquefiable solids. Low concentration requirement: This means low quantity or amount of halons are required for extinguishment. It minimizes weight and space allowance [12]. Gaseous state: This allows for good penetration and effective extinguishment in confined spaces. Boiling point: The boiling point of about -4 allows it to be discharged (in the case of hand-held extinguishers) as a liquid for a while before it vaporises. This is a key requirement in some manual fire fighting applications.[12] Low heat of vaporisation: Halons will not condense to form water or ice in halon flooding systems. The most important advantage of halons is in its cost effectiveness. Halon fixed systems are the most cost effective of all extinguishing systems. 3.2: Extinguishing Mechanisms of Halons Halons extinguish fires both chemically and physically. Chemically they interfere with the chemical reactions that take place during the fire. This characterises halons as inhibitors. Radicals released during combustion to keep the fire burning are suppressed chemically by halons. This reaction is anti-catalytic. When halons are heated during combustion, they produce free radicals which compete with those produced by the original combustion process [2]. Halon 1301 produces bromine radicals which react with hydrogen free radicals to produce hydrogen bromide. The hydrogen bromide then reacts with hydroxyl radical to form water and bromide. The bromide released reacts with the combustion fire again and the whole cycle is repeated. The hydrogen and hydroxyl free radicals produced by combustion are greatly reduced in concentration by combining with the halogen free radicals produced by halons [3]. Where RH is the combustible fuel, XBr is a halon agent RH + O2 ENERGY OH + R †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn3.1 XBr ENERGY Br + X†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.2 RH + Br HBr + R†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.3 HBr + OH H2O + Br†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.4 RH ENERGY R + H†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.5 H + Br HBr†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.6 The combination of bromine and hydroxyl radical is also an ozone destructive reaction: HOBr UV Br + OH†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..eqn3.7 OH + O3 HO2 + O2..eqn3.8 Br + O3 BrO + O2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.9 BrO + HO2 HOBr + O2 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..eqn3.10 3.3: HALONS AND THE OZONE 3.3.1: The ozone layer The earth is enclosed by the atmosphere. This atmosphere is made up of a mixture of numerous gases in varying proportions. The atmosphere is further subdivided into three regions depending on temperature. These regions are: Mesosphere, Stratosphere and Troposphere. The word ozone is from a Greek word, ozein, for to smell. It is an allotropic form of oxygen having three atoms in each molecule. It is a pale blue, highly poisonous gas with a strong odour. [10] In its thickest part in the stratosphere, it is only a trace gas.. Ozone is highest in concentration, about 97%, in the stratosphere (15-60 kilometers above the Earths surface) where it absorbs the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Ozone is also highly concentrated at the Earths surface in and around cities. The buildup of ozone on the earths surface in and around cities is a result of industrial activities and is toxic to organisms living at the Earths surface. Table 3.1 shows the percentage volume composition of the constituents of atmospheric air *variable gases http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7a.html Ozone is very reactive and a stronger oxidising agent than oxygen. It is used in purifying water, sterilising air, and bleaching certain foods. Ozone is formed when an electric spark is passed through oxygen. Ozone is prepared commercially by passing cold, dry oxygen through a silent electrical discharge [7]. Ozone formed in the atmosphere is from nitrogen oxides and organic gases emitted by automobiles and industrial sources [7]. This is achieved by short wavelength ultraviolet. This is actually a health hazard, and it may cause crop damage in some regions. Ultraviolet wavelengths less than 200 nanometer reacts with oxygen molecules to make ozone. O2 UV O + O†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.11 O + O2 O3 + Heat†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn3.12 The heat released here is absorbed by the atmosphere and results in a rise in temperature of the atmosphere. The structure of ozone has 3 oxygen atoms, but steric hindrance prevents it from forming a triangular structure, with each O atom forming the expected 2 bonds. Instead each atom of oxygen forms only 1 bond, with the remaining negative charge being spread throughout the molecule.[7] Ozone is very unstable. It is decomposed either by collision with monoatomic oxygen or by ultraviolet radiation on it. The decomposition causes ozone to form oxygen molecules. Heat is also released to the atmosphere by this reaction O + O3 O2 + O2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn3.13 O3 UV O2 + O + Heat†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn3.14 Ozone is decomposed in the stratosphere to prevent highly energetic ultraviolet radiation from reaching the surface of the earth. 3.3.2: Halons and ozone depletion The ozone layer is mainly depleted by compounds containing chlorine and bromine. Halogens are a chemical family containing fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine; any carbon compound containing them is known as a halocarbon. While all halogens have the ability to catalyze ozone breakdown, they have an unequal impact on the ozone layer. The quantity of halons released into the atmosphere is small relative to the number of gases present in the atmosphere. Yet they are more active in destroying the ozone or disrupting the ozone balance for two reasons: Ozone is in a constant state of imbalance, as it is destroyed and produced by natural processes. This process is controlled by solar input that does not undergo significant fluctuations. The stability of halons makes it transportable from the troposphere to the stratosphere where halogens are made active and broken down very fast, destroying ozone in the stratosphere. . The impact is described as depletion potential of the halocarbon. The OZONE DEPLETING POTENTIAL (ODP) is a simple measure of its ability to destroy stratospheric ozone. The ODP of compounds are calculated with reference to the ODP of CFC-11, which is defined to be 1. Thus ODP is a relative measure. A compound withan ODP of 0.2 is, roughly speaking, one-fifth as bad as CFC-11. The ODP of a compound x is expressed mathematically as the ratio of the total amount of ozone destroyed by a fixed amount of compound x to the amount of ozone destroyed by the same mass of CFC-11[8]: Global loss of Ozone due to x ODP(x) == †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..eqn3.15[8] Global loss of ozone due to CFC-11. The above expression depicts that the ODP of CFC-11 is 1.0 by definition. The uncertainties experienced in evaluating the global loss of ozone due to a compound are eliminated here since the mathematical expression is a ratio. Evaluating the ODP of a compound is affected by the following: The quantity of chlorine or bromine atoms in a molecule. The nature of the halogen, as bromine is a more ozone- destructive catalyst than chlorine. Atmospheric lifetime of the substance: The atmospheric lifetime of the halon is the time it takes for the global amount of the gas to decay to 36.8% of its original concentration after initial emission. Compounds with low atmospheric lifetimes have lower ODP because it is destroyed in the troposphere. Molecular mass of the substance: This is because ODP is evaluated by comparing equal masses and not number of moles. Table3.2 gives time-dependent and steady-state ODPs for some halocarbon in wide use. Compound Formula Ozone Depletion Potential 10yr 30yr 100yr Steady State CFC-113 CF2ClFCl2 0.56 0.62 0.78 1.10 Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 1.25 1.22 1.14 1.08 Methyl Chloroform CH3CCl3 0.75 0.32 0.15 0.12 HCFC-22 CHF2Cl 0.17 0.12 0.07 0.05 Halon-1301 CF3Br 10.4 Water Mist Replacement for Halon Extinguishers Water Mist Replacement for Halon Extinguishers CHAPTER ONE: 1.1: Introduction Choosing the best fire suppression technology is not an easy task. It even involves discussing risks and operations with insurance companies. The most relevant concern of a fire safety engineer is the protection of life which entails the safe evacuation of personnel. The starting point of a suppression system is a risk analysis to reduce the potential occurrence of a fire. This is followed by the control of the damage and the recovery effort or emergency response associated with the means of fire suppression adopted. The quality of installation, efficiency and maintenance of the suppression system adopted cannot be over-emphasised. The phase out of halons, due to environmental concerns, has lead to forceful development of new fire prevention strategies and technologies that are efficient, as well as environmentally friendly technologies. Fire protection halons were phased out of production in developing countries due to the quest to regulate the use of ozone depleting substances(ODS) as reflected in the Montreal Protocol,1987(London Amendment 1990, and Copenhagen amendment1992). Fire suppression agents have two (2) toxicological aspects to them: The toxicity of the agent The toxicity of combustion products of the agent. Several new fire suppression systems have been developed such as inert and halocarbon gaseous systems, water mist systems, gas and aerosol generators. Fire has been extinguished with water since ancient times. Water in the normal form is not a suitable suppression medium of all classes of fire. The efficiency of water in suppression is enhanced by its use of water in form of mists. Survey by Mawhinney and Richardson in 1996 showed that about 50 agencies worldwide are involved in the research and development of water fire mist and suppression systems. Water mist in fire suppression does not behave like true gaseous agents and is affected by fire size, the degree of obstruction, ceiling and the ventilation conditions of the compartment. To effectively suppress a fire, a water mist system must generate and deliver optimum sized droplets with an adequate. 1.2: Objectives and Structure of Dissertation This project aims at studying the water mist as a replacement for halons systems in the extinguishment of fires. This replacement is a direct consequence of the phase out of halons due to environmental issues and the need to find a drop-in replacement or a suitable alternative in areas where high level of fire safety is required and the cost of fatalities is too high. Chapter 2 2.1: Overview of Fire Suppression To suppress fires, the type of fire needs to be identified. The class of the fire to be extinguished also determines the type of extinguisher that can be used. There are six (6) types of fires: Class A FIRES: These involve flammable or combustible solids such as wood, rubber, fabric, paper and some plastics. Class B FIRES: These are fires involving flammable and combustible liquids or liquefiable solids such as oil, alcohol, petrol, paint and liquefiable waxes.[9] Class C FIRES: These are fires involving flammable gases such as natural gas, hydrogen, propane, butane.[9] Class D FIRES: These are fires involving combustible metals, such as sodium and potassium.[9] Class E FIRES: These are fires involving any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but including electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire, with a resultant electrical shock risk if a conductive agent is used to control the fire.[9] http://www.sqa.org.uk/e-learning/FirstLineO2CD/page_06.htm Class F FIRES: These fires involve cooking fats and oils, especially in industrial kitchens. The temperature of these fats and oil on fire is much greater than that of other flammable liquids. 2.2: Means of Fire Suppression The aim of fire suppression is to provide cooling, control the spread of the fire as well as extinguish the fire. The behaviour of a fire is charcterised by the fire triangle which has fuel, oxygen and heat as its three sides. Combustion process is represented by: Fuel + O2 HEAT H2O + CO2 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn2.1 The combustion process is an exothermic reaction, involving a fuel and oxygen. The ratio of fuel to air must be within the flammability limits of the fuel for combustion to occur. The Lower Flammability Limit (LFL) is the minimum concentration of fuel vapour in air, below which a flame cannot be supported in the presence of an ignition source. The Upper Flammability Level (UFL) is the maximum concentration of fuel vapour in air, above which a flame cannot be supported. Stoichiometric Mixture is the ratio of fuel in oxygen that requires minimal energy to support a flame. A branch of the triangle must be removed for the fire to be extinguished. Fires can either be smoldering or flaming combustion. Smoldering occurs when solids such as wood or plastics burn at or on the surface. It usually involves the release of toxic gases and can be difficult to extinguish. Flaming combustion is a gas phase phenomenon that involves the release of visible and infrared radiation. This type of fire generates much more heat. The extinguishing of a fire involves either chemical or physical mechanisms. Physical mechanism: Involves the removal of one side of the fire triangle. This can be done by either blanketing the fire (causing the fuel and air to be separated) or by removing the heat source using an agent with a high heat capacity/ latent heat of vaporization (this will cool the flame by absorbing the heat). Physical mechanism could be thermal or dilution. Thermal physical effect involves adding non-reactive gas to a fire plume leading to a reduction in the flame temperature. This is achieved by the distribution of the heat generated to a larger heat area. The heat capacity of the introduced agent determines the efficiency of the process. On the other hand, for dilution physical effect, the collision frequency of oxygen molecules with the fuel is lowered when the additional gas is introduced into the fuel-air mixture. This effect is quite minimal and negligible. Chemical mechanism: This is the use of an extinguishing agent or its degradation product to disrupt the chain reaction for sustaining combustion. This entails inhibition by halogen atoms. Most good suppressants apply both the physical and the chemical mechanisms. The type of hazard associated with an area determines the fire protection system that will be put in place. Halons have been used in a wide range of applications. Other alternatives include: Water Sprinkler Systems: This is a very common type of fixed protection that offers safe protection to limit structural damage. The cost of installing water sprinkler systems into existing structures is quite expensive. They are better at protecting structures than its contents [11]. The reliability of water sprinkler system has encouraged its wide use. Accidental discharge is uncommon with water sprinkler systems. Water sprinklers have a much slower response than other systems. They also cause a considerable secondary damage. They cannot be used on live electrical equipment and flammable liquids, but they are used widely in computer and control rooms as well as storage rooms in the USA. Detectors: This involves the use of high sensitive smoke detection. This is not exactly an active fire protection approach but it serves as an initiator to other fire protection systems [2]. Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is widely used in gaseous based fire extinguishing systems. There are two types of carbon dioxide system depending on the manner by which they are stored. These are high pressure and low pressure carbon dioxide systems. It is a clean agent and has a good penetrating ability. This makes it safe for use on live electrical equipment. They are also used in unoccupied spaces such as computer and control rooms. Carbon dioxide causes very minimal direct or secondary damage and allows the installation being put back to immediate use after a fire. It is however toxic and cannot be used in total flooding situations. Carbon dioxide cannot also be used in situations where weight and space are important. High concentrations of carbon dioxide are required for extinguishment and as such they are bulky and heavy. They cannot be used in manned areas because they reduce the oxygen concentration to levels below life support and thus cannot be set in automatic mode. Carbon dioxide systems are generally fast acting and cost effective. Carbon dioxide has also found use in record storage, flammable liquid fires, chemical processing equipment, turbine generators, marine applications, computer rooms and shipboard machinery. Inert Gases: inert gases in use for fire suppression are majorly argon and nitrogen mixtures. These are electrically non-conductive fire suppressants. The mechanism behind their use is the lowering of the oxygen concentration of air to that below the lower flammability point (LFL). They are not liquefied gases and they are bulky because they are stored at high pressure. The concentration of inert gases released in the hazardous area is high because they have densities that are similar to that of air. Their response time is not very fast and so they are not efficient in situations where the rate of fire spread is high. Inert gases do not decompose thermally and thus they form no breakdown products [2]. Inert gases can cause an extreme decrease in the composition of oxygen in the body accompanied by an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide leading to loss of consciousness or death and as such health and safety issues have to be considered in its use. Inert gases have found wi de acceptance because they pose no environmental problems. They are not ozone depleting substances neither do they contribute to global warming. They are employed in computer and control rooms, record storage, flammable liquid fires and shipboard machinery [2]. Halocarbon Gases: These are hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons with zero ozone depleting potentials. They are however greenhouse gases and are governed by the Kyoto protocol and hence its release counts towards the national emissions inventory of global warming gases. Halocarbons are electrically non-conductive, are clean agents and are not bulky in terms of space and weight. Foam Systems: Foam systems could be low, medium or high expansion systems. Foam systems are efficient for extinguishing liquid pool fires and large cable fires. In this case, the foam acts as a barrier between the fire and the supply of oxygen. The use of chemical dispersants to clean up after its use has limited the wide use of foam systems. Furthermore the use of smoke detectors for its activation limits its speed of response. They cannot be used to protect any substance that reacts violently with water. Foams systems are often used with water sprinklers. This increases the efficiency of the systems. Foam systems have found use in the extinguishment of flammable liquid fires, engine compartments and shipboard machinery. Dry Powder: Powders have very high response time for extinguishing fires but have no cooling effect. They thus become ineffective as soon as it settles [2]. They are limited in application to extinguishing flammable liquid fires as well as engine spaces. Fine Solid Particulates: This system is used in combination with halocarbon gases and inert gases [2]. They have the advantage of reduced wall and surface losses relative to water mist and particle size is easier to control[2]. They however pose problems to sensitive equipment and cannot be used for explosion suppression applications because they are generated at high temperatures. Fine solid particulates can only be used in unmanned areas because of the problems associated with inhalation of particulate substances. Water Mist: This employs the use of fine water sprays, usually less than 100 microns in diameter. Water mists can be used on flammable liquid fires, as well as electrical equipment. They are not as effective on small or slow burning fires. Water mist installations pose problems in their design and fabrication. Hybrid Systems: Hybrid systems combine one or more of the above fire protection system. A common example of this is the combination of water mist systems and carbon dioxide. There are two methods of applying fire extinguishing agents-Total Flooding and Local Application. Total Flooding: They are operated automatically and manually. It entails applying an extinguishing agent to an enclosed space to achieve a concentration of the extinguisher that is capable of putting out the fire. This method is the most common system of application Local Application: The agent is applied directly onto the fire plume or the affected enclosure. Portable fire extinguishers are the most common forms of this approach. This method is also known as streaming application. There is an increase in the need for the phasing out of halons and this has brought the search for the perfect or drop-in replacement. The department of trade and industry in 1995 listed checklists for the selection of alternatives to halons in critical uses situations as: Fire fighting effectiveness: This involves the speed of fire suppression, the post fire hold time, the ability of the alternative to permeate, the elimination of the risk of reignition, the suitability of the alternative to the fire hazard. Ease of Installation: Ease of maintenance, pipe work, and cost of installation, cost of refill, floor space and weight, system re-instate time, and availability of the extinguisher. Hazards to occupants: Toxicity, noise levels, pressurisation, inhalation, visibility, safety as regards electrical work, thermal decomposition products [2]. Discharge effect on equipment: water damage, clean up, corrosion, thermal shock. Environmental acceptability: Ozone depletion potential, atmospheric lifetime, and global warming potential. Discharge damage: This entails clean up of the agent after use, water damage, thermal shock and corrosion. Esso Australia, while looking for alternatives to halons on their installations considered the following issues [14]: Effectiveness at extinguishing fires Environmental effects (a zero ozone depleting and global warming potential) of the agent before use and after thermal decomposition. Toxicity level and a safety margin between its No Observed Adverse Effects Level (NOAEL value) and the extinguishing concentration required Third party approval from regulatory bodies and safety partners such as International Maritime Organisation (IMO), NFPA, and EPA or Underwriters laboratory Organisations. Level of engineering required to modify an existing halon protected installations. Availability as regards to installation and maintenance at a reasonable cost. 2.2: Health and Safety Issues Considering the health and safety in the UK, there is no specific regulation as regards choice of fire extinguishing systems. Otherwise fire risks and risk from the use of extinguishment can be categorised under risks at work. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 stipulates all risks at work are to be assessed and prevented where ever it is reasonably practicable, controlled. In cases where fire extinguishing systems contain toxic substances then the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988 (COSHH regs) will also apply. The basis of the two regulations is the prevention rather than control of the risk. 2.3: Environmental regulations The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) has prohibited the use of new halon systems from 1994, but accepts the use of existing ones. The EU has banned its use onboard vessels by the end of 2003. The following are regulations that are put in place to phase out the use of halons. The Montreal protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone layer- the Montreal protocol, signed by 25 countries on the 16th of September, 1987 is an international treaty for the control of the production and use of ozone depleting substances. It involves the restriction and eventual prohibition of the production, distribution and use of Ozone Depleting Substances. A copy of this document is attached in Appendix 1. The EC regulations: This European legislation was put in place to further tighten the restriction on the ban of ozone depleting substances. EC Regulation 3093/94 came into force on the 23rd of December 1994. EC Regulation 3093/94 is directly binding in all EU Member States and does not require any national implementing legislation. The new Regulation EC 2037/2000 came into force on 1 October 2000, replacing the Regulation 3093/94. The enforcement requires the use of bodies such as the HM Customs and Excise concerning import of controlled substances. The Department of the Environment proposes to implement these arrangements through enforcement regulations made under both the Environmental Protection Act 1990 s.140 and the European Communities Act 1972.(EC REGULATION) The new requirements are applicable to the production, distribution, use and recovery, and control of hazardous substances. The regulations also require the recovery of used controlled substances from certain equipment, s uch as fire protection systems, for disposal or recycling, during servicing and maintenance procedures of equipment. A copy of the regulation is attached to Appendix 2. The Victorian Environment Protection Legislation for the Control of Ozone Depleting substances (Victorian Government Gazette No.S57, 1990) this piece of legislation depicts the Australian governments compliance, reliance and advocacy to the implementation of the Montreal protocol on the phasing out of halon use [14]. Environmental Protection agency: Under the Clean Air Amendment, the United States Environmental Protection agency, EPA analysed various substances that could substitute fire extinguishing agents that destroy the ozone layer. These substances also have low global warming potential and low Atmospheric lifetime. The SNAP program (Significant New Alternatives Policy) is used by the EPA to replace the use of halons with environmentally friendly systems in the United States. The Clean Air Act was signed into law in 1990. With this Act, the US banned the production and import of new halons 1211, 1301 and 2402 from the 1st of January 1994 in compliance with the Montreal Protocol. The US government also imposed excise tax on halons through specialized training and proper recycling and disposal. Chapter Three: Halon Systems Halon is the generic name for bromine contained halogenated hydrocarbons. Halons systems were first installed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In the gaseous form, halons are excellent fire extinguishers. Halons are mostly employed in situations where fire safety standards are high. Halons are identified by a four digit number. The numbering system is assigned by the number of carbon, number of fluorine, chlorine and bromine atoms respectively. Halon 1301, containing carbon, fluorine and bromine is used in total flooding applications while halon 1211, containing carbon, fluorine, chlorine and bromine is used as hand held portable extinguishers. The two common halon types described are effective in extinguishing classes A, B and C fires. These halons are preferred because they exhibited: high efficiency in suffocating combustion, availability in volume at reasonable cost, high storage stability, low electrical conductivity, as well as acceptable toxic properties. 3.1: Characteristics of Halons Halons interfere with the chemical reactions which take place during a fire. The properties of halons allow for its use in most situations and thus most of its applications are linked to particular characteristics. These principal applications include: Clean fire fighting agent: Halons leave no residue after use. This eliminates secondary damages and keeping loss caused by the fire to a minimum [12]. Electrically non-conductive: This property makes it suitable for safe application on fires involving electrical equipment. It will prevent exposure of fire fighters to electric shock. Low toxicity: This property makes halons acceptable and in most cases halon flooding systems are set in automatic mode by default. They can also be used to extinguish fires while people are present in the protected room. Halon flooding systems do not displace so much oxygen which can lead to suffocation[12] Rapid response: Halons are effective for rapid knockdown of flames. This property is mostly essential for class B fires involving liquid and liquefiable solids. Low concentration requirement: This means low quantity or amount of halons are required for extinguishment. It minimizes weight and space allowance [12]. Gaseous state: This allows for good penetration and effective extinguishment in confined spaces. Boiling point: The boiling point of about -4 allows it to be discharged (in the case of hand-held extinguishers) as a liquid for a while before it vaporises. This is a key requirement in some manual fire fighting applications.[12] Low heat of vaporisation: Halons will not condense to form water or ice in halon flooding systems. The most important advantage of halons is in its cost effectiveness. Halon fixed systems are the most cost effective of all extinguishing systems. 3.2: Extinguishing Mechanisms of Halons Halons extinguish fires both chemically and physically. Chemically they interfere with the chemical reactions that take place during the fire. This characterises halons as inhibitors. Radicals released during combustion to keep the fire burning are suppressed chemically by halons. This reaction is anti-catalytic. When halons are heated during combustion, they produce free radicals which compete with those produced by the original combustion process [2]. Halon 1301 produces bromine radicals which react with hydrogen free radicals to produce hydrogen bromide. The hydrogen bromide then reacts with hydroxyl radical to form water and bromide. The bromide released reacts with the combustion fire again and the whole cycle is repeated. The hydrogen and hydroxyl free radicals produced by combustion are greatly reduced in concentration by combining with the halogen free radicals produced by halons [3]. Where RH is the combustible fuel, XBr is a halon agent RH + O2 ENERGY OH + R †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn3.1 XBr ENERGY Br + X†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.2 RH + Br HBr + R†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.3 HBr + OH H2O + Br†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.4 RH ENERGY R + H†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.5 H + Br HBr†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.6 The combination of bromine and hydroxyl radical is also an ozone destructive reaction: HOBr UV Br + OH†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..eqn3.7 OH + O3 HO2 + O2..eqn3.8 Br + O3 BrO + O2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.9 BrO + HO2 HOBr + O2 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..eqn3.10 3.3: HALONS AND THE OZONE 3.3.1: The ozone layer The earth is enclosed by the atmosphere. This atmosphere is made up of a mixture of numerous gases in varying proportions. The atmosphere is further subdivided into three regions depending on temperature. These regions are: Mesosphere, Stratosphere and Troposphere. The word ozone is from a Greek word, ozein, for to smell. It is an allotropic form of oxygen having three atoms in each molecule. It is a pale blue, highly poisonous gas with a strong odour. [10] In its thickest part in the stratosphere, it is only a trace gas.. Ozone is highest in concentration, about 97%, in the stratosphere (15-60 kilometers above the Earths surface) where it absorbs the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Ozone is also highly concentrated at the Earths surface in and around cities. The buildup of ozone on the earths surface in and around cities is a result of industrial activities and is toxic to organisms living at the Earths surface. Table 3.1 shows the percentage volume composition of the constituents of atmospheric air *variable gases http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7a.html Ozone is very reactive and a stronger oxidising agent than oxygen. It is used in purifying water, sterilising air, and bleaching certain foods. Ozone is formed when an electric spark is passed through oxygen. Ozone is prepared commercially by passing cold, dry oxygen through a silent electrical discharge [7]. Ozone formed in the atmosphere is from nitrogen oxides and organic gases emitted by automobiles and industrial sources [7]. This is achieved by short wavelength ultraviolet. This is actually a health hazard, and it may cause crop damage in some regions. Ultraviolet wavelengths less than 200 nanometer reacts with oxygen molecules to make ozone. O2 UV O + O†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦eqn3.11 O + O2 O3 + Heat†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn3.12 The heat released here is absorbed by the atmosphere and results in a rise in temperature of the atmosphere. The structure of ozone has 3 oxygen atoms, but steric hindrance prevents it from forming a triangular structure, with each O atom forming the expected 2 bonds. Instead each atom of oxygen forms only 1 bond, with the remaining negative charge being spread throughout the molecule.[7] Ozone is very unstable. It is decomposed either by collision with monoatomic oxygen or by ultraviolet radiation on it. The decomposition causes ozone to form oxygen molecules. Heat is also released to the atmosphere by this reaction O + O3 O2 + O2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn3.13 O3 UV O2 + O + Heat†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.eqn3.14 Ozone is decomposed in the stratosphere to prevent highly energetic ultraviolet radiation from reaching the surface of the earth. 3.3.2: Halons and ozone depletion The ozone layer is mainly depleted by compounds containing chlorine and bromine. Halogens are a chemical family containing fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine; any carbon compound containing them is known as a halocarbon. While all halogens have the ability to catalyze ozone breakdown, they have an unequal impact on the ozone layer. The quantity of halons released into the atmosphere is small relative to the number of gases present in the atmosphere. Yet they are more active in destroying the ozone or disrupting the ozone balance for two reasons: Ozone is in a constant state of imbalance, as it is destroyed and produced by natural processes. This process is controlled by solar input that does not undergo significant fluctuations. The stability of halons makes it transportable from the troposphere to the stratosphere where halogens are made active and broken down very fast, destroying ozone in the stratosphere. . The impact is described as depletion potential of the halocarbon. The OZONE DEPLETING POTENTIAL (ODP) is a simple measure of its ability to destroy stratospheric ozone. The ODP of compounds are calculated with reference to the ODP of CFC-11, which is defined to be 1. Thus ODP is a relative measure. A compound withan ODP of 0.2 is, roughly speaking, one-fifth as bad as CFC-11. The ODP of a compound x is expressed mathematically as the ratio of the total amount of ozone destroyed by a fixed amount of compound x to the amount of ozone destroyed by the same mass of CFC-11[8]: Global loss of Ozone due to x ODP(x) == †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..eqn3.15[8] Global loss of ozone due to CFC-11. The above expression depicts that the ODP of CFC-11 is 1.0 by definition. The uncertainties experienced in evaluating the global loss of ozone due to a compound are eliminated here since the mathematical expression is a ratio. Evaluating the ODP of a compound is affected by the following: The quantity of chlorine or bromine atoms in a molecule. The nature of the halogen, as bromine is a more ozone- destructive catalyst than chlorine. Atmospheric lifetime of the substance: The atmospheric lifetime of the halon is the time it takes for the global amount of the gas to decay to 36.8% of its original concentration after initial emission. Compounds with low atmospheric lifetimes have lower ODP because it is destroyed in the troposphere. Molecular mass of the substance: This is because ODP is evaluated by comparing equal masses and not number of moles. Table3.2 gives time-dependent and steady-state ODPs for some halocarbon in wide use. Compound Formula Ozone Depletion Potential 10yr 30yr 100yr Steady State CFC-113 CF2ClFCl2 0.56 0.62 0.78 1.10 Carbon tetrachloride CCl4 1.25 1.22 1.14 1.08 Methyl Chloroform CH3CCl3 0.75 0.32 0.15 0.12 HCFC-22 CHF2Cl 0.17 0.12 0.07 0.05 Halon-1301 CF3Br 10.4

O.B Case Studies

|VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND JOB SATISFACTION | LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Contrast terminal and instrumental values 2. List the dominant values in today’s workforce 3. Identify the five value dimensions of national culture 4. Contrast the three components of an attitude 5. Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior 6. Identify the role that consistency plays in attitudes 7. State the relationship between job satisfaction and behavior 8.Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction CHAPTER OVERVIEW Why is it important to know an individual’s values? Although they do not have a direct impact on behavior, values strongly influence a person’s attitudes. Knowledge of an individual’s value system can provide insight into his/her attitudes. Given that people’s values differ, managers can use the Rokeach Value Survey to assess potential employees and determine if their values align with the dominant values of the organization. An employee’s performance and satisfaction are likely to be higher if his/her values fit well with the organization.For instance, the person who places high importance on imagination, independence, and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with an organization that seeks conformity from its employees. Managers are more likely to appreciate, evaluate positively, and allocate rewards to employees who â€Å"fit in,† and employees are more likely to be satisfied if they perceive that they do fit. This argues for management to strive during the selection of new employees to find job candidates who not only have the ability, experience, and motivation to perform, but also a value system that is ompatible with the organization’s. Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because attitudes give warnings of potential problems and because they influence behavior. Satisfied and committed employees, for inst ance, have lower rates of turnover and absenteeism. Given that managers want to keep resignations and absences down—especially among their more productive employees—they will want to do those things that will generate positive job attitudes.Managers should also be aware that employees will try to reduce cognitive dissonance. More importantly, dissonance can be managed. If employees are required to engage in activities that appear inconsistent to them or are at odds with their attitudes, the pressures to reduce the resulting dissonance are lessened when the employee perceives that the dissonance is externally imposed and is beyond his/her control or if the rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance. WEB EXERCISESAt the end of each chapter of this instructor’s manual, you will find suggested exercises and ideas for researching the WWW on OB topics. The exercises â€Å"Exploring OB Topics on the Web† are set up so that you can simply photocopy t he pages, distribute them to your class, make assignments accordingly. You may want to assign the exercises as an out-of-class activity or as lab activities with your class. Within the lecture notes the graphic will note that there is a WWW activity to support this material.The chapter opens introducing Marge Savage, a Microsoft marketing analyst who is gathering information about the â€Å"Nexters† generation—people born after 1977. They are the first group of people to never know a world without computers and the Internet. She found that this group values integrity, teamwork, moral support, responsibility, and freedom to pursue their dreams. They want to work for a company that supports their needs, and where they can have significant influence in shaping society.They see technology and the Internet as a major force for changing the world—good news for Microsoft. CHAPTER OUTLINE |Values |Notes: | |Values represent basic convictions that â€Å"a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or | | |socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. | | | | | |There is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable. | | | | | |Values have both content and intensity attributes. | | | | |The content attribute says that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. | | |The intensity attribute specifies how important it is. | | |Ranking an individual’s values in terms of their intensity equals that person’s value system. | | | | |Values are not generally fluid and flexible. They tend to be relatively stable and enduring. | | | | | |A significant portion of the values we hold is established in our early years—from parents, teachers, friends, | | |and others. | |The process of questioning our values, of course, may result in a change, but more often, our questioning acts | | |to reinforce the values we hold. | | |A. Importance of Values | | |1.Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation because they influence our | | |perceptions. | | | | | |2. Individuals enter organizations with notions of what is right and wrong with which they interpret behaviors| | |or outcomes—at times this can cloud objectivity and rationality. | | | | |3. Values generally influence attitudes and behavior. | | |B. Types of Values | | |1.Rokeach Value Survey (Exhibit 3-1) | | | | | |It consists of two sets of values, with each set containing 18 individual value items. | | |One set—terminal values—refers to desirable end-states of existence, the goals that a person would like to | | |achieve during his/her lifetime. | |The other—instrumental values—refers to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values. | | | | | | | | |2. Several studies confirm that the RVS values vary among groups. | | | | |People in the same occupations or categories t end to hold similar values. | | |Contemporary Work Cohorts | | |1.The unique value of different cohorts is that the U. S. workforce can be segmented by the era they entered | | |the workforce. (Exhibit 3-3) | | |Contemporary Work Cohorts (cont. ) |Notes: | |2.Veterans—Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s | | |Influenced by the Great Depression and World War II | | |Believe in hard work | | |Tend to be loyal to their employer | | |Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security | | | | | |3. Boomers—Employees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid-1980s | | | | | |Influenced heavily by John F.Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, the Beatles, the Vietnam War, | | |and baby-boom competition | | |Distrust authority, but have a high emphasis on achievement and material success | | |Organizations who employ them are vehicles for their careers | | |Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition | | | | | |4.Xers—began to enter the workforce from the mid-1980s | | | | | |Shaped by globalization, two-career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers | | |Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction | | |Family and relationships are important and enjoy team-oriented work | | |Money is important, but will trade off for increased leisure time | | |Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations | | |Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure | | | | | |5. Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce. | | | | |Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and confident in their ability to | | |succeed | | |Never-ending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with job-hopping | | |Seek financial success | | |Enjoy team work, but are highly self-reliant | | |Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life | | | | | |Individuals’ values dif fer, but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in which they grew up. This | | |can be a valuable aid in explaining and predicting behavior. Employees in their 60s, for instance, are more | | |likely to accept authority than coworkers 15 years younger. | | | | | |7. Workers under 35 are more likely than the other groups to balk at having to work overtime or weekends, | | |and are more prone to leave a job in mid-career to pursue another that provides more leisure time. | | | | OB IN THE NEWS – American Workers Rethink Priorities Values are relatively permanent, but dramatic shocks can realign them. For example, the terrorists’ attacks on September 11 may have significantly reprioritized many Americans’ values. The initial response to the terrorist attacks for many people was a reevaluation of choices related to jobs, family, and career success. In some cases, this led to a rethinking of career paths, cutting back on grueling schedules, and deciding to pursue work that might pay less but seem more meaningful.For instance, in California, young workers who once talked of dot-com millions are now asking: â€Å"Is it worth it? † Some employees appear less concerned about putting in face time, making deadlines, and getting on the fast track. They seem more concerned about family and worry less about time at the office. CEOs say some of their employees are talking more earnestly about work/life balance, mortality, and other questions once considered taboo in the office. Said one consultant, â€Å"The event de-emphasized what most people value—the money and the luxuries. People are questioning what’s really important; they’re questioning work. It’s happening across the board. † It has now been more than a year since the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington D. C.That provides a more meaningful perspective on whether this event has had long-term implications on workplace values, or whet her any reprioritizing was merely a knee-jerk reaction to a traumatic event, followed by a return to â€Å"business as usual. † Do you think a significant portion of Americans have permanently reprioritized their values as a result of 9-11? Class Exercise: 1. Have students break into small groups to discuss the question: â€Å"Do you think a significant portion of Americans have permanently reprioritized their values as a result of 9-11? † Ask them to list examples of why or why not they think the way they do. 2. As a class, share what was discussed in the small groups. 3. Ask if they think America’s values have changed, or were they just reawakened? 4.Ask if they think organizations’ values have changed or reprioritized as a result of the events. 5. Ask them to relate this question to themselves. Have they reprioritized their lives as a result of the 9-11 events? (They may not want to share this information with the entire class—its purpose is jus t to get them thinking. ) |A. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior |Notes: | |Many people think there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 1970s. The four-stage model of | | |work cohort values might explain this perception. Exhibit 3-2) | | | | | |Managers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor influencing ethical and unethical| | |behavior in the organization. | | | | | |Through the mid-1970s, the managerial ranks were dominated by Veterans whose loyalty was to their employer; | | |their decisions were made in terms of what was best for the employer. | | | | |Boomers entered the workforce at this time and by the 1990’s had risen into the majority of management | | |positions. Loyalty was to their careers. Self-centered values would be consistent with a decline in ethical | | |values. Did this really happen? | | | | | |Recent entrants to the workforce—Xers—are now moving into middle management. Loyalty is to relationships, | | |therefore they may be more likely to consider the ethical implications of their actions on others around them. | |Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the Ethical Dilemma: Is it a Bribe or a Gift? Exercise found in the text. The purpose of the exercise is to provide the opportunity for students to understand that ethical situations are not always black or white and must be given consideration as business decisions are made. |B. Values Across Cultures |Notes: | |Values differ across cultures, therefore, understanding these differences helps to explain and to predict | | |behavior of employees from different countries.One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing | | |variations among cultures has been done by Geert Hofstede. | | | | | |Hofstede’s A framework for assessing cultures; five value dimensions of national culture (Exhibit 3-4): | | | | | |a.Power distance: | | | | | |The degree to which people i n a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed | | |unequally. | | | | | |Individualism versus collectivism: | | | | |Individualism is the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of | | |groups. | | |Collectivism equals low individualism. | | | | | |Quantity of life versus quality of life: | | | | | |Quantity of life is the degree to which values such as assertiveness, the acquisition of money and material | | |goods, and competition prevail. | |Quality of life is the degree to which people value relationships and show sensitivity and concern for the | | |welfare of others. | | | | | |Uncertainty avoidance: | | | | | |The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations. | | | | |Long-term versus short-term orientation: | | | | | |Long-term orientations look to the future and value thrift and persistence. | | |Short-term orientation values the past and present and emphasizes respect for tradition and fulfilling social | | |obligations. | | | | |Conclusions: | | | | | |Asian countries were more collectivist than individualistic. US ranked highest on individualism. German and | | |Hong Kong ranked highest on quality of life; Russia and The Netherlands were low. China and Hong Kong had a | | |long-term orientation; France and US were low. | | | | |3. Hofstede’s work is the basic framework for assessing cultures. However, it is nearly 30 years old. In | | |1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) has begun updating this research | | |with date from 825 organizations and 62 countries. | | | | | |a.GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures: | | | | | |Assertiveness: The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, confrontational, assertive, and | | |competitive versus modest and tender | | | | |Future Orientation: The extent to which a society encourages and rewards future-oriented b ehaviors such as | | |planning, investing in the future and delaying gratification | | | | | |Gender differentiation: The extent to which a society maximized gender role differences | | |Values Across Cultures (cont. |Notes: | | | | |Uncertainly avoidance: Society’s reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of | | |future events | | | | | |Power distance: The degree to which members of a society expect power to be unequally shared | | | | | |Individualism/Collectivism: The degree to which individuals are encouraged by societal institutions to be | | |integrated into groups within organizations and society | | | | | |In-group collectivism: The extent to which society’s members take pride in membership in small groups such as | | |their families and circles of close friends, and the organizations where they are employed | | | | | Performance orientation: The degree to which society encourages and rewards group members for performance | | |improvement and excellence | | | | | |Humane orientation: The degree to which a society encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, | | |altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others | | | | | |b. Conclusion: The GLOBE study had extended Hofstede’s work rather than replaced it. It confirms Hofstede’s | | |five dimensions are still valid and provides updated measures of where countries are on each dimension. For | | |example, the U. S. in the 70s led the world in individualism—today, it is in the mid-ranks of countries. | |Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the Team Exercise: Challenges in Negotiating with Chinese Executives found in the text. The purpose of this exercise is to give the students an opportunity to develop awareness of how to effectively work with another culture when doing business. |C. Implications for OB | | |Americans have developed organizational behavior within domestic contexts—mor e than 80 percent of the articles | | |published in journals were by Americans. | | | | |Follow-up studies continue to confirm the lack of cross-cultural considerations in management and OB research. | | |From a cultural perspective this means: | | | | | |Not all OB theories and concepts are universally applicable. | |You should take into consideration cultural values when trying to understand the behavior of people in different| | |countries. | | |Attitudes | | |Attitudes are evaluative statements that are either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people, or | | |events. | | | | | |Attitudes are not the same as values, but the two are interrelated. | | | | |Three components of an attitude: | | | | | |Cognition | | |Affect | | |Behavior | | | | |The belief that â€Å"discrimination is wrong† is a value statement and an example of the cognitive component of an | | |attitude. | | |Attitudes (cont. ) |Notes: | |Value statements set the stage for the more critical part of an attitude—its affective component. Affect is the | | |emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. Example: â€Å"I don’t like Jon because he discriminates again | | |minorities. | | | | | |The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or | | |something. Example: â€Å"I chose to avoid Jon because he discriminates. † | | | | | |Viewing attitudes as made up of three components helps with understanding of the potential relationship between | | |attitudes and behavior, however, when we refer to attitude essentially we mean the affect part of the three | | |components. | | | | |In contrast to values, your attitudes are less stable. Advertisements are directed at changing your attitudes | | |and are often successful. | | | | | |In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behavior. | | |A. Types of Attitudes | | |OB focuses our attention on a very limited number o f job-related attitudes.Most of the research in OB has been |Notes: | |concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. | | | | | |Job satisfaction | | | | | |Definition: It is an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job. | | | | |A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the job and vice versa. | | | | | |Employee attitudes and job satisfaction are frequently used interchangeably. | | | | | |Often when people speak of â€Å"employee attitudes† they mean â€Å"employee job satisfaction. | | | | | |Job involvement | | | | | |A workable definition: the measure of the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his/her job | | |and considers his/her perceived performance level important to self-worth. | | | | | |High levels of job involvement is thought to result in fewer absences and lower resignation rates. | | | | | |Job involvement more consistently predicts turnover than absenteeism. | | | | |Organizational commitment | | | | | |Definition: A state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to| | |maintain membership in the organization. | | | | |Research evidence demonstrates negative relationships between organizational commitment and both absenteeism and| | |turnover. | | | | | |An individual’s level of organizational commitment is a better indicator of turnover than the far more | | |frequently used job satisfaction predictor because it is a more global and enduring response to the organization| | |as a whole than is job satisfaction. | | | | |This evidence, most of which is more than two decades old, needs to be qualified to reflect the changing | | |employee-employer relationship. | | |A. Types of Attitudes (cont. ) |Notes: | |Organizational commitment is probably less important as a job-related attitude than it once was because the | | |unwritten â€Å"loyalty† contract i n place when this research was conducted is no longer in place. | | | | |In its place, we might expect â€Å"occupational commitment† to become a more relevant variable because it better | | |reflects today’s fluid workforce. | | Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the exercise Point-Counter Point: Mangers Can Create Satisfied Employees exercise found in the text. The purpose of the exercise is to replace popularly held notions with research-based conclusions. |B. Attitudes and Consistency |Notes: | |People sometimes change what they say so it does not contradict what they do. | | | | |Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes | | |and their behavior. | | | | | |Individuals seek to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behavior so they appear rational| | |and consistent. | | | | |When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an equilibrium state where | | |attitudes and behavior are again consistent, by altering either the attitudes or the behavior, or by developing | | |a rationalization for the discrepancy. | | |C. Cognitive Dissonance Theory | | |Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance, seeking to explain the linkage | | |between attitudes and behavior. He argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals | | |will attempt to reduce the dissonance. | | | | |Dissonance means â€Å"an inconsistency. † | | | | | |Cognitive dissonance refers to â€Å"any incompatibility that an individual might perceive between two or more of | | |his/her attitudes, or between his/her behavior and attitudes. | | | | | |No individual can completely avoid dissonance. | | | | | |The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by: | | | | | |The importance of the elements creating the dissonance. | | |The degree of infl uence the individual believes he/she has over the elements. | | |The rewards that may be involved in dissonance. | | | | |Importance: If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correct this | | |imbalance will be low. | | | | | |Influence: If the dissonance is perceived as an uncontrollable result, they are less likely to be receptive to | | |attitude change. While dissonance exists, it can be rationalized and justified. | | | | |Rewards: The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced with high rewards. | | | | | |Moderating factors suggest that individuals will not necessarily move to reduce dissonance—or consistency. | | |C. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (cont. ) |Notes: | |Organizational implications | | | | |Greater predictability of the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioral change | | |The greater the dissonance—after it has been moderated by importance, choice, and rewards factors—the gr eater | | |the pressures to reduce it. | | |D. Measuring the A-B Relationship | | |Early research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal relationship to behavior. In the late 1960s, this| | |assumed relationship between attitudes and behavior (A-B) was challenged. Recent research has demonstrated that| | |attitudes significantly predict future behavior. | | | | |The most powerful moderators: | | | | | |Importance | | |Specificity | | |Accessibility | | |Social pressures | | |Direct experience | | | | | |Importance: Reflects fundamental values, self-interest, or identification with individuals or groups that a | | |person values. | | | | | |Specificity: The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between | | |the two. | | | | |Accessibility: Attitudes that are easily remembered are more likely to predict behavior than attitudes that are | | |not accessible in memory. | | | | | |Social pressures: Discrepancies between att itudes and behavior are more likely to occur where social pressures | | |to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power. | | | | |Direct experience: The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers to an | | |individual’s direct personal experience. | | |E. Self-perception theory | | |Researchers have achieved still higher correlations by pursuing whether or not behavior influences attitudes. | | | | |Self-perception theory argues that attitudes are used to make sense out of an action that has already occurred | | |rather than devices that precede and guide action. Example: I’ve had this job for 10 years, no one has forced | | |me to stay, so I must like it! | | | | | |Contrary to cognitive dissonance theory, attitudes are just casual verbal statements; they tend to create | | |plausible answers for what has already occurred. | | | | |While the traditional attitude-behavior relationship is generally positive, the behavior- attitude relationship | | |is stronger particularly when attitudes are vague and ambiguous or little thought has been given to it | | |previously. | | |An Application: Attitude Surveys | | |The most popular method for getting information about employee attitudes is through attitude surveys. See | | |Exhibit 3-5) | | | | | |Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with valuable feedback on how employees perceive | | |their working conditions. Managers present the employee with set statements or questions to obtain specific | | |information. | | | | |Policies and practices that management views as objective and fair may be seen as inequitable by employees in | | |general or by certain groups of employees and can lead to negative attitudes about the job and the organization. | | | | | |Employee behaviors are often based on perceptions, not reality. Often employees do not have objective data from | | |which to base their perceptions. | | | | |The use of regular attitude surveys can alert management to potential problems and employees’ intentions early | | |so that action can be taken to prevent repercussions. | | |G. Attitudes and Workforce Diversity | | |A survey of U. S. organizations with 100 or more employees found that 47 percent or so of them sponsored some | | |sort of diversity training. | | | | |These diversity programs include a self-evaluation phase where people are pressed to examine themselves and to | | |confront ethnic and cultural stereotypes they might hold. This is followed by discussion with people from | | |diverse groups. | | | | | |Additional activities designed to change attitudes nclude arranging for people to do volunteer work in | | |community or social service centers in order to meet face to face with individuals and groups from diverse | | |backgrounds, and using exercises that let participants feel what it is like to be different. | | |Job Satisfaction | | |Measuring Job Satisfaction | | |Job satisfa ction is â€Å"an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job. | | | | | |Jobs require interaction with co-workers and bosses, following organizational rules and policies, meeting | | |performance standards, living with working conditions that are often less than ideal, and the like. This means | | |that an employee’s assessment of how satisfied or dissatisfied he or she is with his/her job is a complex | | |summation of a number of discrete job elements. | | | | |The two most widely used approaches are a single global rating and a summation score made up of a number of job | | |facets. | | | | | |a. The single global rating method is nothing more than asking individuals to respond to one question, such as| | |â€Å"All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job? | | |Measuring Job Satisfaction (cont. ) |Notes: | | A summation of job facets is more sophisticated: | | | | | |It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employee’s feelings about each one ranked on a standardized| | |scale. | | | | |Typical factors that would be included are the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion | | |opportunities, and relations with co-workers. | | | | | |Comparing these approaches, simplicity seems to work as well as complexity. Comparisons of one-question global | | |ratings with the summation-of-job-factors method indicate both are valid. | |How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? | | |Most people are satisfied with their jobs in the developed countries surveyed. | | | | | |However, there has been a decline in job satisfaction since the early 1990s. In the US nearly an eight percent | | |drop in the 90s. Surprisingly those last years were one’s of growth and economic expansion. | | | | |What factors might explain the decline despite growth: | | | | | |Increased productivity through heavier employee workloads and tighter deadlines | | |Employees feeling they have less control over thei r work | | | | | |While some segments of the market are more satisfied than others, they tend to be higher paid, higher skilled | | |jobs which gives workers more control and challenges. | | Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the exercise found in the MYTH OR SCIENCE: How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? box found in the text.The purpose of the exercise is to replace popularly held notions with research-based conclusions. MYTH OR SCIENCE? – â€Å"Happy Workers Are Productive Workers† This statement is generally false. The myth that â€Å"happy workers are productive workers† developed in the 1930s and 1940s, due to the Hawthorne studies at Western Electric. A careful review of the research indicates that, if there is a positive relationship between happiness (i. e. , satisfaction) and productivity, the correlations are low; no more than two percent of the variance in output can be accounted for by employee satisfaction. The evidence, however, is for the reverse—productive workers are likely to be happy workers.That is, productivity leads to satisfaction rather than the other way around. If the organization rewards productivity, these rewards, in turn, increase your level of satisfaction with the job. Class Exercise 1. Brainstorm with students about situations where they knew workers/employees were unhappy with the company or their jobs, but still did a reasonably good job. Perhaps have them share insights into their own feelings about their school, or a particular class they disliked but still tried very hard. 2. Discuss why someone who is unhappy with his/her job might work hard at it and do good work. 3. Why would someone who is happy with his/her job not perform at a higher level than the disgruntled worker? 4.Students should come to realize that most effort comes from internal drive, not external motivation. As a result, a highly internally motivated individual might perform well in any circumstance whereas his/her organizational environment would not positively affect a non-internally motivated individual. |C. The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance |Notes: | |Managers’ interest in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employee performance. Much research has| | |been done on the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. | | | | |Satisfaction and productivity: