O.B Case Studies

|VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND JOB SATISFACTION | LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Contrast terminal and instrumental values 2. List the dominant values in today’s workforce 3. Identify the five value dimensions of national culture 4. Contrast the three components of an attitude 5. Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior 6. Identify the role that consistency plays in attitudes 7. State the relationship between job satisfaction and behavior 8.Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction CHAPTER OVERVIEW Why is it important to know an individual’s values? Although they do not have a direct impact on behavior, values strongly influence a person’s attitudes. Knowledge of an individual’s value system can provide insight into his/her attitudes. Given that people’s values differ, managers can use the Rokeach Value Survey to assess potential employees and determine if their values align with the dominant values of the organization. An employee’s performance and satisfaction are likely to be higher if his/her values fit well with the organization.For instance, the person who places high importance on imagination, independence, and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with an organization that seeks conformity from its employees. Managers are more likely to appreciate, evaluate positively, and allocate rewards to employees who â€Å"fit in,† and employees are more likely to be satisfied if they perceive that they do fit. This argues for management to strive during the selection of new employees to find job candidates who not only have the ability, experience, and motivation to perform, but also a value system that is ompatible with the organization’s. Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because attitudes give warnings of potential problems and because they influence behavior. Satisfied and committed employees, for inst ance, have lower rates of turnover and absenteeism. Given that managers want to keep resignations and absences down—especially among their more productive employees—they will want to do those things that will generate positive job attitudes.Managers should also be aware that employees will try to reduce cognitive dissonance. More importantly, dissonance can be managed. If employees are required to engage in activities that appear inconsistent to them or are at odds with their attitudes, the pressures to reduce the resulting dissonance are lessened when the employee perceives that the dissonance is externally imposed and is beyond his/her control or if the rewards are significant enough to offset the dissonance. WEB EXERCISESAt the end of each chapter of this instructor’s manual, you will find suggested exercises and ideas for researching the WWW on OB topics. The exercises â€Å"Exploring OB Topics on the Web† are set up so that you can simply photocopy t he pages, distribute them to your class, make assignments accordingly. You may want to assign the exercises as an out-of-class activity or as lab activities with your class. Within the lecture notes the graphic will note that there is a WWW activity to support this material.The chapter opens introducing Marge Savage, a Microsoft marketing analyst who is gathering information about the â€Å"Nexters† generation—people born after 1977. They are the first group of people to never know a world without computers and the Internet. She found that this group values integrity, teamwork, moral support, responsibility, and freedom to pursue their dreams. They want to work for a company that supports their needs, and where they can have significant influence in shaping society.They see technology and the Internet as a major force for changing the world—good news for Microsoft. CHAPTER OUTLINE |Values |Notes: | |Values represent basic convictions that â€Å"a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or | | |socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. | | | | | |There is a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable. | | | | | |Values have both content and intensity attributes. | | | | |The content attribute says that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. | | |The intensity attribute specifies how important it is. | | |Ranking an individual’s values in terms of their intensity equals that person’s value system. | | | | |Values are not generally fluid and flexible. They tend to be relatively stable and enduring. | | | | | |A significant portion of the values we hold is established in our early years—from parents, teachers, friends, | | |and others. | |The process of questioning our values, of course, may result in a change, but more often, our questioning acts | | |to reinforce the values we hold. | | |A. Importance of Values | | |1.Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation because they influence our | | |perceptions. | | | | | |2. Individuals enter organizations with notions of what is right and wrong with which they interpret behaviors| | |or outcomes—at times this can cloud objectivity and rationality. | | | | |3. Values generally influence attitudes and behavior. | | |B. Types of Values | | |1.Rokeach Value Survey (Exhibit 3-1) | | | | | |It consists of two sets of values, with each set containing 18 individual value items. | | |One set—terminal values—refers to desirable end-states of existence, the goals that a person would like to | | |achieve during his/her lifetime. | |The other—instrumental values—refers to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values. | | | | | | | | |2. Several studies confirm that the RVS values vary among groups. | | | | |People in the same occupations or categories t end to hold similar values. | | |Contemporary Work Cohorts | | |1.The unique value of different cohorts is that the U. S. workforce can be segmented by the era they entered | | |the workforce. (Exhibit 3-3) | | |Contemporary Work Cohorts (cont. ) |Notes: | |2.Veterans—Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s | | |Influenced by the Great Depression and World War II | | |Believe in hard work | | |Tend to be loyal to their employer | | |Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security | | | | | |3. Boomers—Employees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid-1980s | | | | | |Influenced heavily by John F.Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, the Beatles, the Vietnam War, | | |and baby-boom competition | | |Distrust authority, but have a high emphasis on achievement and material success | | |Organizations who employ them are vehicles for their careers | | |Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition | | | | | |4.Xers—began to enter the workforce from the mid-1980s | | | | | |Shaped by globalization, two-career parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers | | |Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction | | |Family and relationships are important and enjoy team-oriented work | | |Money is important, but will trade off for increased leisure time | | |Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations | | |Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure | | | | | |5. Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce. | | | | |Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and confident in their ability to | | |succeed | | |Never-ending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with job-hopping | | |Seek financial success | | |Enjoy team work, but are highly self-reliant | | |Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life | | | | | |Individuals’ values dif fer, but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in which they grew up. This | | |can be a valuable aid in explaining and predicting behavior. Employees in their 60s, for instance, are more | | |likely to accept authority than coworkers 15 years younger. | | | | | |7. Workers under 35 are more likely than the other groups to balk at having to work overtime or weekends, | | |and are more prone to leave a job in mid-career to pursue another that provides more leisure time. | | | | OB IN THE NEWS – American Workers Rethink Priorities Values are relatively permanent, but dramatic shocks can realign them. For example, the terrorists’ attacks on September 11 may have significantly reprioritized many Americans’ values. The initial response to the terrorist attacks for many people was a reevaluation of choices related to jobs, family, and career success. In some cases, this led to a rethinking of career paths, cutting back on grueling schedules, and deciding to pursue work that might pay less but seem more meaningful.For instance, in California, young workers who once talked of dot-com millions are now asking: â€Å"Is it worth it? † Some employees appear less concerned about putting in face time, making deadlines, and getting on the fast track. They seem more concerned about family and worry less about time at the office. CEOs say some of their employees are talking more earnestly about work/life balance, mortality, and other questions once considered taboo in the office. Said one consultant, â€Å"The event de-emphasized what most people value—the money and the luxuries. People are questioning what’s really important; they’re questioning work. It’s happening across the board. † It has now been more than a year since the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington D. C.That provides a more meaningful perspective on whether this event has had long-term implications on workplace values, or whet her any reprioritizing was merely a knee-jerk reaction to a traumatic event, followed by a return to â€Å"business as usual. † Do you think a significant portion of Americans have permanently reprioritized their values as a result of 9-11? Class Exercise: 1. Have students break into small groups to discuss the question: â€Å"Do you think a significant portion of Americans have permanently reprioritized their values as a result of 9-11? † Ask them to list examples of why or why not they think the way they do. 2. As a class, share what was discussed in the small groups. 3. Ask if they think America’s values have changed, or were they just reawakened? 4.Ask if they think organizations’ values have changed or reprioritized as a result of the events. 5. Ask them to relate this question to themselves. Have they reprioritized their lives as a result of the 9-11 events? (They may not want to share this information with the entire class—its purpose is jus t to get them thinking. ) |A. Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior |Notes: | |Many people think there has been a decline in business ethics since the late 1970s. The four-stage model of | | |work cohort values might explain this perception. Exhibit 3-2) | | | | | |Managers consistently report the action of bosses as the most important factor influencing ethical and unethical| | |behavior in the organization. | | | | | |Through the mid-1970s, the managerial ranks were dominated by Veterans whose loyalty was to their employer; | | |their decisions were made in terms of what was best for the employer. | | | | |Boomers entered the workforce at this time and by the 1990’s had risen into the majority of management | | |positions. Loyalty was to their careers. Self-centered values would be consistent with a decline in ethical | | |values. Did this really happen? | | | | | |Recent entrants to the workforce—Xers—are now moving into middle management. Loyalty is to relationships, | | |therefore they may be more likely to consider the ethical implications of their actions on others around them. | |Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the Ethical Dilemma: Is it a Bribe or a Gift? Exercise found in the text. The purpose of the exercise is to provide the opportunity for students to understand that ethical situations are not always black or white and must be given consideration as business decisions are made. |B. Values Across Cultures |Notes: | |Values differ across cultures, therefore, understanding these differences helps to explain and to predict | | |behavior of employees from different countries.One of the most widely referenced approaches for analyzing | | |variations among cultures has been done by Geert Hofstede. | | | | | |Hofstede’s A framework for assessing cultures; five value dimensions of national culture (Exhibit 3-4): | | | | | |a.Power distance: | | | | | |The degree to which people i n a country accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed | | |unequally. | | | | | |Individualism versus collectivism: | | | | |Individualism is the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of | | |groups. | | |Collectivism equals low individualism. | | | | | |Quantity of life versus quality of life: | | | | | |Quantity of life is the degree to which values such as assertiveness, the acquisition of money and material | | |goods, and competition prevail. | |Quality of life is the degree to which people value relationships and show sensitivity and concern for the | | |welfare of others. | | | | | |Uncertainty avoidance: | | | | | |The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations. | | | | |Long-term versus short-term orientation: | | | | | |Long-term orientations look to the future and value thrift and persistence. | | |Short-term orientation values the past and present and emphasizes respect for tradition and fulfilling social | | |obligations. | | | | |Conclusions: | | | | | |Asian countries were more collectivist than individualistic. US ranked highest on individualism. German and | | |Hong Kong ranked highest on quality of life; Russia and The Netherlands were low. China and Hong Kong had a | | |long-term orientation; France and US were low. | | | | |3. Hofstede’s work is the basic framework for assessing cultures. However, it is nearly 30 years old. In | | |1993, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) has begun updating this research | | |with date from 825 organizations and 62 countries. | | | | | |a.GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures: | | | | | |Assertiveness: The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, confrontational, assertive, and | | |competitive versus modest and tender | | | | |Future Orientation: The extent to which a society encourages and rewards future-oriented b ehaviors such as | | |planning, investing in the future and delaying gratification | | | | | |Gender differentiation: The extent to which a society maximized gender role differences | | |Values Across Cultures (cont. |Notes: | | | | |Uncertainly avoidance: Society’s reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of | | |future events | | | | | |Power distance: The degree to which members of a society expect power to be unequally shared | | | | | |Individualism/Collectivism: The degree to which individuals are encouraged by societal institutions to be | | |integrated into groups within organizations and society | | | | | |In-group collectivism: The extent to which society’s members take pride in membership in small groups such as | | |their families and circles of close friends, and the organizations where they are employed | | | | | Performance orientation: The degree to which society encourages and rewards group members for performance | | |improvement and excellence | | | | | |Humane orientation: The degree to which a society encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, | | |altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others | | | | | |b. Conclusion: The GLOBE study had extended Hofstede’s work rather than replaced it. It confirms Hofstede’s | | |five dimensions are still valid and provides updated measures of where countries are on each dimension. For | | |example, the U. S. in the 70s led the world in individualism—today, it is in the mid-ranks of countries. | |Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the Team Exercise: Challenges in Negotiating with Chinese Executives found in the text. The purpose of this exercise is to give the students an opportunity to develop awareness of how to effectively work with another culture when doing business. |C. Implications for OB | | |Americans have developed organizational behavior within domestic contexts—mor e than 80 percent of the articles | | |published in journals were by Americans. | | | | |Follow-up studies continue to confirm the lack of cross-cultural considerations in management and OB research. | | |From a cultural perspective this means: | | | | | |Not all OB theories and concepts are universally applicable. | |You should take into consideration cultural values when trying to understand the behavior of people in different| | |countries. | | |Attitudes | | |Attitudes are evaluative statements that are either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people, or | | |events. | | | | | |Attitudes are not the same as values, but the two are interrelated. | | | | |Three components of an attitude: | | | | | |Cognition | | |Affect | | |Behavior | | | | |The belief that â€Å"discrimination is wrong† is a value statement and an example of the cognitive component of an | | |attitude. | | |Attitudes (cont. ) |Notes: | |Value statements set the stage for the more critical part of an attitude—its affective component. Affect is the | | |emotional or feeling segment of an attitude. Example: â€Å"I don’t like Jon because he discriminates again | | |minorities. | | | | | |The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or | | |something. Example: â€Å"I chose to avoid Jon because he discriminates. † | | | | | |Viewing attitudes as made up of three components helps with understanding of the potential relationship between | | |attitudes and behavior, however, when we refer to attitude essentially we mean the affect part of the three | | |components. | | | | |In contrast to values, your attitudes are less stable. Advertisements are directed at changing your attitudes | | |and are often successful. | | | | | |In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behavior. | | |A. Types of Attitudes | | |OB focuses our attention on a very limited number o f job-related attitudes.Most of the research in OB has been |Notes: | |concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. | | | | | |Job satisfaction | | | | | |Definition: It is an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job. | | | | |A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the job and vice versa. | | | | | |Employee attitudes and job satisfaction are frequently used interchangeably. | | | | | |Often when people speak of â€Å"employee attitudes† they mean â€Å"employee job satisfaction. | | | | | |Job involvement | | | | | |A workable definition: the measure of the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his/her job | | |and considers his/her perceived performance level important to self-worth. | | | | | |High levels of job involvement is thought to result in fewer absences and lower resignation rates. | | | | | |Job involvement more consistently predicts turnover than absenteeism. | | | | |Organizational commitment | | | | | |Definition: A state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to| | |maintain membership in the organization. | | | | |Research evidence demonstrates negative relationships between organizational commitment and both absenteeism and| | |turnover. | | | | | |An individual’s level of organizational commitment is a better indicator of turnover than the far more | | |frequently used job satisfaction predictor because it is a more global and enduring response to the organization| | |as a whole than is job satisfaction. | | | | |This evidence, most of which is more than two decades old, needs to be qualified to reflect the changing | | |employee-employer relationship. | | |A. Types of Attitudes (cont. ) |Notes: | |Organizational commitment is probably less important as a job-related attitude than it once was because the | | |unwritten â€Å"loyalty† contract i n place when this research was conducted is no longer in place. | | | | |In its place, we might expect â€Å"occupational commitment† to become a more relevant variable because it better | | |reflects today’s fluid workforce. | | Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the exercise Point-Counter Point: Mangers Can Create Satisfied Employees exercise found in the text. The purpose of the exercise is to replace popularly held notions with research-based conclusions. |B. Attitudes and Consistency |Notes: | |People sometimes change what they say so it does not contradict what they do. | | | | |Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes | | |and their behavior. | | | | | |Individuals seek to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behavior so they appear rational| | |and consistent. | | | | |When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an equilibrium state where | | |attitudes and behavior are again consistent, by altering either the attitudes or the behavior, or by developing | | |a rationalization for the discrepancy. | | |C. Cognitive Dissonance Theory | | |Leon Festinger, in the late 1950s, proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance, seeking to explain the linkage | | |between attitudes and behavior. He argued that any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and that individuals | | |will attempt to reduce the dissonance. | | | | |Dissonance means â€Å"an inconsistency. † | | | | | |Cognitive dissonance refers to â€Å"any incompatibility that an individual might perceive between two or more of | | |his/her attitudes, or between his/her behavior and attitudes. | | | | | |No individual can completely avoid dissonance. | | | | | |The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by: | | | | | |The importance of the elements creating the dissonance. | | |The degree of infl uence the individual believes he/she has over the elements. | | |The rewards that may be involved in dissonance. | | | | |Importance: If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to correct this | | |imbalance will be low. | | | | | |Influence: If the dissonance is perceived as an uncontrollable result, they are less likely to be receptive to | | |attitude change. While dissonance exists, it can be rationalized and justified. | | | | |Rewards: The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced with high rewards. | | | | | |Moderating factors suggest that individuals will not necessarily move to reduce dissonance—or consistency. | | |C. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (cont. ) |Notes: | |Organizational implications | | | | |Greater predictability of the propensity to engage in attitude and behavioral change | | |The greater the dissonance—after it has been moderated by importance, choice, and rewards factors—the gr eater | | |the pressures to reduce it. | | |D. Measuring the A-B Relationship | | |Early research on attitudes and common sense assumed a causal relationship to behavior. In the late 1960s, this| | |assumed relationship between attitudes and behavior (A-B) was challenged. Recent research has demonstrated that| | |attitudes significantly predict future behavior. | | | | |The most powerful moderators: | | | | | |Importance | | |Specificity | | |Accessibility | | |Social pressures | | |Direct experience | | | | | |Importance: Reflects fundamental values, self-interest, or identification with individuals or groups that a | | |person values. | | | | | |Specificity: The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between | | |the two. | | | | |Accessibility: Attitudes that are easily remembered are more likely to predict behavior than attitudes that are | | |not accessible in memory. | | | | | |Social pressures: Discrepancies between att itudes and behavior are more likely to occur where social pressures | | |to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power. | | | | |Direct experience: The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers to an | | |individual’s direct personal experience. | | |E. Self-perception theory | | |Researchers have achieved still higher correlations by pursuing whether or not behavior influences attitudes. | | | | |Self-perception theory argues that attitudes are used to make sense out of an action that has already occurred | | |rather than devices that precede and guide action. Example: I’ve had this job for 10 years, no one has forced | | |me to stay, so I must like it! | | | | | |Contrary to cognitive dissonance theory, attitudes are just casual verbal statements; they tend to create | | |plausible answers for what has already occurred. | | | | |While the traditional attitude-behavior relationship is generally positive, the behavior- attitude relationship | | |is stronger particularly when attitudes are vague and ambiguous or little thought has been given to it | | |previously. | | |An Application: Attitude Surveys | | |The most popular method for getting information about employee attitudes is through attitude surveys. See | | |Exhibit 3-5) | | | | | |Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with valuable feedback on how employees perceive | | |their working conditions. Managers present the employee with set statements or questions to obtain specific | | |information. | | | | |Policies and practices that management views as objective and fair may be seen as inequitable by employees in | | |general or by certain groups of employees and can lead to negative attitudes about the job and the organization. | | | | | |Employee behaviors are often based on perceptions, not reality. Often employees do not have objective data from | | |which to base their perceptions. | | | | |The use of regular attitude surveys can alert management to potential problems and employees’ intentions early | | |so that action can be taken to prevent repercussions. | | |G. Attitudes and Workforce Diversity | | |A survey of U. S. organizations with 100 or more employees found that 47 percent or so of them sponsored some | | |sort of diversity training. | | | | |These diversity programs include a self-evaluation phase where people are pressed to examine themselves and to | | |confront ethnic and cultural stereotypes they might hold. This is followed by discussion with people from | | |diverse groups. | | | | | |Additional activities designed to change attitudes nclude arranging for people to do volunteer work in | | |community or social service centers in order to meet face to face with individuals and groups from diverse | | |backgrounds, and using exercises that let participants feel what it is like to be different. | | |Job Satisfaction | | |Measuring Job Satisfaction | | |Job satisfa ction is â€Å"an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job. | | | | | |Jobs require interaction with co-workers and bosses, following organizational rules and policies, meeting | | |performance standards, living with working conditions that are often less than ideal, and the like. This means | | |that an employee’s assessment of how satisfied or dissatisfied he or she is with his/her job is a complex | | |summation of a number of discrete job elements. | | | | |The two most widely used approaches are a single global rating and a summation score made up of a number of job | | |facets. | | | | | |a. The single global rating method is nothing more than asking individuals to respond to one question, such as| | |â€Å"All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job? | | |Measuring Job Satisfaction (cont. ) |Notes: | | A summation of job facets is more sophisticated: | | | | | |It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employee’s feelings about each one ranked on a standardized| | |scale. | | | | |Typical factors that would be included are the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion | | |opportunities, and relations with co-workers. | | | | | |Comparing these approaches, simplicity seems to work as well as complexity. Comparisons of one-question global | | |ratings with the summation-of-job-factors method indicate both are valid. | |How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? | | |Most people are satisfied with their jobs in the developed countries surveyed. | | | | | |However, there has been a decline in job satisfaction since the early 1990s. In the US nearly an eight percent | | |drop in the 90s. Surprisingly those last years were one’s of growth and economic expansion. | | | | |What factors might explain the decline despite growth: | | | | | |Increased productivity through heavier employee workloads and tighter deadlines | | |Employees feeling they have less control over thei r work | | | | | |While some segments of the market are more satisfied than others, they tend to be higher paid, higher skilled | | |jobs which gives workers more control and challenges. | | Instructor Note: At this point in the lecture you may want to introduce the exercise found in the MYTH OR SCIENCE: How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs? box found in the text.The purpose of the exercise is to replace popularly held notions with research-based conclusions. MYTH OR SCIENCE? – â€Å"Happy Workers Are Productive Workers† This statement is generally false. The myth that â€Å"happy workers are productive workers† developed in the 1930s and 1940s, due to the Hawthorne studies at Western Electric. A careful review of the research indicates that, if there is a positive relationship between happiness (i. e. , satisfaction) and productivity, the correlations are low; no more than two percent of the variance in output can be accounted for by employee satisfaction. The evidence, however, is for the reverse—productive workers are likely to be happy workers.That is, productivity leads to satisfaction rather than the other way around. If the organization rewards productivity, these rewards, in turn, increase your level of satisfaction with the job. Class Exercise 1. Brainstorm with students about situations where they knew workers/employees were unhappy with the company or their jobs, but still did a reasonably good job. Perhaps have them share insights into their own feelings about their school, or a particular class they disliked but still tried very hard. 2. Discuss why someone who is unhappy with his/her job might work hard at it and do good work. 3. Why would someone who is happy with his/her job not perform at a higher level than the disgruntled worker? 4.Students should come to realize that most effort comes from internal drive, not external motivation. As a result, a highly internally motivated individual might perform well in any circumstance whereas his/her organizational environment would not positively affect a non-internally motivated individual. |C. The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance |Notes: | |Managers’ interest in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employee performance. Much research has| | |been done on the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. | | | | |Satisfaction and productivity:

Andrew Jackson DBQ Essay

Jackson was a man of many faces, and many of his views were not democratic. First, Jackson was not democratic for economic reasons, such as the Bank veto. Second, Jackson was not democratic for political reasons, such as implementing the Spoils system. Third, Jackson was not democratic for social reasons, such as being pro-slavery. Jacksonian views are not democratic. First, Jackson was not democratic for political reasons. During his presidency many of his actions were viewed as tyrannical and his behavior reflected that of a king rather than of a president. One person drew a cartoon of Jackson, where he is wearing a crown, holding a scepter in his hand, and trampling on the Constitution (Doc 11). This represents that people saw Andrew Jackson as â€Å"King Andrew† because he did whatever he wanted and acted like a dictator by disobeying the Constitution. Another example was when Jackson implemented the Spoils System, which was when the President appointed his supporters with government jobs. Jackson argued that there aren’t many major qualifications necessary for government jobs and that anyone can do it (Doc 4). However, opponents of Jackson considered him a tyrant because he replaced experienced politicians with illiterate farmers who had no political experience just because they supported his campaign. Jackson was not democratic for many political reasons. Second, Jackson was not democratic for economic reasons. To start, Jackson vetoed the bill to recharter the Second Bank of the United States. He claimed that he was protecting the democracy from corruption but in reality, he feared that the bankers would campaign against him. Jackson was a tyrant who destroyed the national bank for personal issues (Doc 8) and he was quoted as saying, â€Å"The Bank is trying to kill me but I will kill it.† Next, Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act, which forced the Indians to move west. Even though the Indians did not want to leave their lands and move into unknown lands, Jackson forced them to (Doc 6). Jackson argued that the white settlers needed the land and could make better use of it and could make the land more economically productive than the Indians had been able  to. Jackson was not democratic for these economic reasons. Third, Jackson was not a democratic president for social reasons. He did not believe in equality for all people. Jackson owned a large number of slaves during his presidency (Doc 5). This shows how Jackson supported slavery and only equality when it referred to white males. Jackson also treated the Native Americans very poorly. Jackson believed that Native Americans were inferior to whites’, and that it was not necessary to treat them fairly. He believed that Native Americans were children in need of guidance (Doc 10). He helped them by â€Å"guiding† them out of their lands and sending them on the Trail of Tears in which more than 4,000 Cherokee die of cold, hunger and disease. Jackson was not a democratic president due to many social reasons.

Phillisophical Analisys

Phillisophical Analisys Nicolo Machiavelli: Basic nature of man- believes it is better to be feared then loved. He believed that we should be avoid being hated. People more quickly forget the death of their father, than the loss of their inheritance.Purpose and aim of state- believes virtues can lead to ones construction, whereas some vices allow one to strive. Virtues, which we commonly praise in people, might lead to their downfall.Structures used to implement the state- believe best to have a reputation of being generous, if generosity is done in secret. Believes those two types of principal government's monarchies and republics.Use in role of law- he became an important diplomat when the Medici family regained power in 1512.Moral or Philosophical Ends To Be Achieved- he developed writings of plays that were historical, political philosophy, and even plays. In the end he ultimately gained favor with the Medici family.David Hume's statements on ethics foreshadowed tho...His greatest work is the prince wri tten in 1513 published after his death in 1532. Its main theme was that princes should retain absolute control over their territories. His work wasn't taken well and soon condemned by the pope.John Locke: Basic Nature of Man- man convinces others that a plot of land is his he combines his labor with his plot and this became property.Purpose and Aim of the State- awareness and reality Structure Used to Implement the State-Locke believes that we can only think about non-mental entities by being aware of mental entities that represent them. In building this relationship he wrote that we must controlled our belief forming capabilities and is our duty to do so.Use in role of law- Locke's second Treatise of Government a defining work in the soon to merge American Government, was based on Locke's concept of natural law.Moral or Philosophical Ends To Be Achieved- The hinge of the work was the concept of private property.Thomas Hobbes: Basic Nature of Man- Hobbes argues that in the absence o f social condition every action we perform no mater how charitable or benevolent, it is done for reasons which are self-serving. Says that people are poor, nasty, brutish, and short at best.Purpose and aim of the state- by the beginning of his residence in Paris 1640 Hobbes had matured the plan for his own philosophical work. It was to consist of three treatises, dealing respectively with matter or body, with human nature, and with society.Structure used to implement the state- Hobbes draws on the language of the natural law tradition of morality.Use in role of law- Hobbes studied the law of heresy and wrote a short treatise on the subject providing that there was no court that he could be judged. Argues that monarchy is the best type of government cause a monarch's interests are the same as the people.Moral or Philosophical Ends To Be Achieved- Sovereign can not be unjust or injure any subject; the sovereign can not be put to death; subject owe him sole loyalty; subjects can not be freed from their obligation; dissenters must consent with the majority in declaring a sovereign; the right to censor doctrines repugnant to peace; legislative power of prescribing rules; judicial power of deciding all controversies; make war and peace with other nations; choose counselors; power of reward and punishment; power of all civil appointments including the militia.Jean-Jacques Rousseau- Basic Nature of Man- said that man is essentially good, a noble savage when in state of nature, and that good people are made unhappy and crupted by their experiences in society. Purpose and Aim of State- he argued that the goal of government should be to secure freedom, equality, and justice for all within the state, regardless of the will of majority. Structure used to implement the State- Rousseau's political philosophy is that politics and morality should not be seperated. When a state fails in a moral fashion, it ceases to function in the proper manor in ceases to exert genuine author ity over the individual. The second most important principal is freedom, which the state is created to preserve.Use in role of law- argued that the advancement of art and science had not been beneficial to mankind. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful, and crushed individual liberty. He concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of sincere friendship, replacing it with jealousy, fear and suspicion. Moral or Philosophical Ends to be Achieved- Rousseau's ideas about education have profoundly influenced modern educational theory. He minimizes the importance of book learning, and recommends that a child's emotions should be educated before his reason. He placed a special emphasis on learning by experience.David Hume- Basic Nature of Man-Believed humans had passion, free-will and morality, offering original and often skeptical appraisals of these notions.Purpose and Aim of State-By the end of the century, Hume was rec ognized as the founder of the moral theory of Utility. Utilitarian political theorist, Jeremy Bentham, acknowledges Hume's direct influence on him. Hume's Political Discourses drew immediate praise and influenced economic thinkers such as Adam Smith, Godwin and Thomas Malthus.Structures Used to Implement the State-Hume was a candidate for the Chair of Moral Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh. The position was to vacated by John Pringle and leading candidates were Hume and William Cleghorn. The Edinburgh Town Counsel was responsible for electing the replacement. Critics opposed Hume by condemning his anti-religious writings.Use in Role of Law-Hume attacks the character of the clergy, accusing this profession of being motivated by ambition, conceit and revenge.Moral or Philosophical Ends to Be Achieved-Hume offered Rousseau refuge in England and secured him a government pension. In England, Rousseau became suspicious of plots, and publicly charged Hume with conspiring to ruin h is character under the appearance of helping him. Hume published a pamphlet defending his actions and was exonerated. His remaining years were spent refining and revising his published works, and socializing with friends in Edinburgh's intellectual circles. After his death, Hume's name took new significance as several of his previously unpublished works appeared.

Working in Partnership in Health and Social Care essay part 2Essay Writing Service

Working in Partnership in Health and Social Care essay part 2Essay Writing Service Working in Partnership in Health and Social Care essay part 2 Working in Partnership in Health and Social Care essay part 2Working in Partnership in Health and Social Care essay part  1Finally, there are private health and social care models that are funded entirely by private investors. In such a case, the health and social care lies under the full responsibility of privately owned organisations but the government agencies still have the right to monitor their performance to prevent the risk of the violation of human rights of patients or their abuse.However, as a rule, private health care organisations that also provide social care services are responsible because they are interested in the maintenance of the positive public image to attract more customers. Such health and social care organisations often have their own system of monitoring and control to ensure that their health and social care professionals provide patients with care of the high quality. Nevertheless, the government regulatory and controlling agencies should still keep suc h health and social care under control because there is still a probability that they may develop a negligent attitude toward their professional duties that may lead to such cases as was the case of the Mid Staffordshire NHS foundation trust and Adult A.Furthermore, today, the partnership in health and social care are regulated by the Health and Social Care Act of 2012, which regulates health and social care services and creates legal conditions for partnerships in health and social care. However, the Health and Social Care Act of 2012 focuses on setting regulations that will enhance the quality of health and social care with the prioritization of the unification of health and social care. In other words, the current legislation focuses on the merger of health and social care, while they used to develop separately in the past.Moreover, the mid Staffordshire NHS foundation trust and Adult A case has triggered the public debate and forced legislators to launch legal changes to protect patients, in case of professional negligence and under-performance of health and social care organisations and professionals working in those organisations. D. Cameron proposed to improve patient care, increase accountability of hospitals and tackle a culture of â€Å"complacency† in the National Health Service.  He proposed establishing the new post of chief inspector of hospitals (Limentani, 1999).In such a way, new legislative initiatives aim at the enhancement of the government monitoring and control over health and social care and partnerships in this field (Davis, 2006). In this regard, the current legislation provides the basis on the ground of which the further enhancement of the government control and monitoring should be implemented at the legislative level. Organisations operating in health and social care partnerships should be under the government control that decreases the probability of such cases as the Mid Staffordshire NHS foundation trust and Adult A.At the same time, it is worth mentioning the fact that differences in practices and policies in health care and social care have a considerable impact on the collaborative working and partnerships. In fact, the difference in practices and policies lead to substantial communication gaps and misunderstandings between health care and social care professionals.Moreover, such partnerships cannot integrate into their organisational structure that means that health care organisations remain disintegrated from social care organisations because of the differences in their practices and policies. The lack of the integration has a negative impact on the performance of organisations. In such a situation, patients cannot count on stable and reliable health and social care services because some services may overlap, while others may be under-performed.In such a situation, the effectiveness of the partnership in health care and social care decreases because they cannot work as a homogeneous body empl oying the same policies and practices. At this point, it is possible to refer to the case of mid Staffordshire NHS foundation trust and Adult A which has proved the ineffectiveness of such partnership and its failure was, to a significant extent, determined by the differences in practices and policies conducted by health care and social care providers.Section CIn fact, possible outcomes of partnerships in health and social care may be highly controversial. On the one hand, such partnerships have the huge potential. Health and social care partnerships can contribute to the consistent qualitative improvement of both health and social care. Isolated, social and health care services are less effective because they cannot always complement each other. On the contrary, health care organisations offer a set of health care services, while social care organisations offer their services which are not always related to health care services received by patients. In case of partnerships, patient s can enjoy health and social care services that complement each other. What is meant here is the fact that patients receiving health care services can also receive those social care services that match their current needs in terms of their health condition, ability/disability, and overall physical or mental health.On the other hand, the risk of such cases as was the case of the mid Staffordshire NHS foundation trust and Adult A persists. This is why partnerships may lead to the deception of patients, violation of their basic human rights, neglect and even death. In such a context, partnerships in health and social care often confront severe criticism from the part of the public as well as professionals working in both fields, i.e. health care and social care. The major source of criticism is the possibility of avoiding the just legal action, in case of the violation of partnerships or insufficient or ineffective performances in terms of partnerships. At this point, it is also worth mentioning the fact that partners may repose the responsibility on each other. For example, health care organisation may justify persisting health problems of a patient by poor social care services and, on the contrary, social care professionals can explain the failure of their performance by the poor health of clients and under-performance of health care professionals.The major potential barriers to partnerships in health and social care are closely intertwined with the difference in practices and policies conducted by health care and social care organisations. Many researchers (Coddington, Fischer,   Moore, 2000) point out that the difference in practices and policies persists today and has a considerable impact on the performance of health and social care partnerships.Furthermore, communication gaps may also raise barriers on the way to the effective partnership between health and social care. In actuality, communication gaps are particularly dangerous for the overall success of health and social care partnerships because the poor communication prevents partners from the effective interaction. As a result, organisations comprising the partnership under-perform. For example, health care professionals may provide incomplete information to social workers on a patient and social workers may fail to meet needs of the patient to the full extent. Similarly, the lack of information on social conditions and conditions of living of the patents may lead to the ineffective treatment since health care professionals cannot take into consideration all factors that may influence the health condition of their patient.At the same time, barriers may arise in the result of certain overlapping of functions, when health care professionals and organisations may believe that social care professionals and organisations interfere into their domain and vice versa. Therefore, they need to distribute functions clearly. In addition, the overlapping of functions increases costs of bot h health and social care that is absolutely unacceptable, when the costs of health care services are already high.Nevertheless, it is obvious that partnerships in health and social care may be effective. In this respect, it is possible to recommend several strategies to enhance such partnerships and make them more effective than they are at the moment. First, health care and social care organisations should eliminate differences in their practices and policies. The elimination of the differences may involve the development of common standards and reorganisation and restructuring that helps organisation to elaborate the common organisational structure, distribute functions effectively and provide clients with health and social care services of the high quality.Second, the close integration of health care and social care organisation should lead to the steady elimination of the frontline between them that means that health care professionals should be able to deliver basic social care services, while social workers should be able to deliver basic health care services. Such integration of health and social care professionals can help them to understand each other better. Therefore, they will be able to interact with each other better because they will understand what each other do and how they do it.Third, the enhancement of monitoring and control over health and social care partnership is essential but such monitoring and control should not be bound to the government monitoring and control only. Instead, independent auditing may be needed, including the involvement of auditing agencies as well as public organisations which may monitor the performance of health and social care partnerships effectively and professionally.   The monitoring and control will prevent such cases as the Mid Staffordshire NHS foundation trust and Adult A case. At any rate, the risk of occurrence of such cases will drop substantially, if health and social care organisations remain under the permanent monitoring and control from the part of the government agencies.Finally, the improvement of health and social care partnership should start with the close collaboration of professionals working in these two fields. Health care professionals should work hand in hand with social workers. In such a way, they will not only share their experience but they will also learn to understand each other better as they know how they work and what challenges they confront. The close cooperation helps health and social care professionals to understand specificities of their job and, thus, understand each other better.ConclusionThus, the case of the mid Staffordshire NHS foundation trust and Adult A reveals the full extent to which the current legislation concerning health and social care in the UK is imperfect. At the same time, the partnership in health and social care is still very prospective. This is why policy makers should consider possibilities of the improvement of such partn erships and enhancement of the government and public control over their performance.

Relationship between body image and self-esteem among adolescent girls Essay

Relationship between body image and self-esteem among adolescent girls - Essay Example This paper illustrates that lower levels of self-esteem and poor body image are clearly documented in the general literature as the significant cause of the concern among many adolescent girls. The first area of the review outlines the impact and emotional development of body image and self-esteem. The chapter then goes ahead to outline the immediate influence of family followed by an analysis of how the peers and the media impact self-esteem as well as body image. Importance of the article: Having a distorted body image among girls who are at the adolescent age have been linked to the advancement of dysfunctional eating pattern and disorders such as Anorexia Nervosa, Binge eating disorder or even Bulimia Nervosa. The self-esteem is so important factor; based on the research which shows that it is directly related to one’s personal image and how adolescent girls perceive themselves. It is quite clear and very necessary to know that, self-esteem corresponds with the emotional a s well, as the physical development, can directly affect an adolescent girl in either a positive or a negative way. Purpose of the study: The main purpose of the literature review is to determine whether a relationship exists between self-esteem and body image among adolescent girls. The self-esteem should never below for anyone who wishes to accept his or her self-personality, thus the study focuses on al the aspect which is deemed necessary for overcoming the challenge imposed by lack of this self-esteem and image. Procedures and steps: The study was based on the systematic approach, whereby different respondent was interviewed using both orally and written questioners, this facilitated the acquisition of information so efficiently and giving most accurate data that would be relayed upon in assessing the situation on the ground. Once the data was collected, it was critically analyzed to come up with the conclusion as well as the relevant recommendations. Important information is g iven more emphasis and much weight so as to avoid biases in coming up with the conclusion as well as the recommendation which shall be relied upon by the readers of the article. Participants: Considering the research conducted in schools as well as other social places, revealed a clear picture of how these two elements are affecting many teenagers both in their social and ordinary way of life. The study was conducted based on a random sampling to analyze the different perspectives as well as opinions that all these groups of personalities. As the estimate of 60% of the population visited was analyzed to determine the information necessary f r the research. For instance, the survey conducted Association of University Women showed that only 29% of the girls who were served did express self-satisfaction, while more than half of the boys did feel so good about themselves.

The necessity of human resource management Essay

The necessity of human resource management - Essay Example It helps in determination of objectives. No organization can succeed in its mission unless its objectives an identified and well denied. Management helps in achieving these objectives by the efficient use of resources. "Management is the art of getting things done through other people. Management is the dynamic, life-giving element in every business. Without it the resources of production remain resources and never become production." (Sharma, 2004) The people working in an organization are a valuable resource whose talents have to be developed and utilized in the best manner possible for the achievements of organizational objectives (Sherlekar, 1999). Meaningful personnel policy is based on the implied understanding that human resource constitutes the essential capital and assets of any business. Without this no business can prosper nor can it survive. The growth and success of the enterprise and the rate of human investment have positive and high correlation. If human investment is adequate and time, money and energy spent in planning, obtaining and developing the human resource are considered as integral part of overall corporate plan and policy, there is no reason why economic investment should not be fruitful (David et al, 2004) Firstly, management is a social process. ... Management is concerned with making such an interaction productive and useful for achieving organizational goals. It is the pervasiveness of the human element that gives management its special character as a social process. Secondly, management is an integrating process. Management is regarded as a process integrating human and other resources to achieve predetermined goals. Managers apply their knowledge and skills to achieve the desired result. For this purpose, it is necessary to create unity of effort or teamwork in the organization. In order to develop team spirit, managers has to synchronies different activities, relate means to ends, and strike an appropriate balance between organizational and individual goals. Thus management is regarded as an integrating process. Thirdly, management is a continuous process Management is an ongoing continuous process. It involves continuous handling of problems and issues. Management constantly identifies the problems and tries to solve them (Sherlekar, 1999). 4.0 Staffing Staffing may be defined as the process involved in identifying, assessing, planning, evaluating and developing individuals at work. The managerial function of staffing involves manning the organizational structure through the proper and effective selection, appraisal and development of personnel to fill the roles designed into the structure. 4.1 Phases in Staffing Process 4.1.1 Manpower Planning Manpower planning may be regarded, as a process of determining quantitative and qualitative needs in relation to manpower in an organization. It may be expressed as a process by which the management ensures the right number of people and right kind of people, at the right place, at the right time

Water pollution. California's water pollution dilemma Essay

Water pollution. California's water pollution dilemma - Essay Example Water pollution is the contamination of our rivers, lakes, public beaches, and drinking water by unwanted agents known to cause illness, disease, and death. The pollution can be biological, such as an unwanted bacteria or parasites. It may be a chemical known to cause cancer, which has been discharged from an industrial waste site. The ill effects of water pollution can range from a mild inconvenience to a serious health problem in humans. Animals and fish, even more sensitive to many pollutants and toxins, can be placed at risk when the ecological system of our rivers and lakes is disrupted. Whatever form the water pollution takes, it places California's scarce and most precious commodity at particular risk. Everyone has an individual responsibility to curb the pollution that threatens the health of the population, the safety of the food and water supply, and ultimately has a devastating impact on the economy of California.When toxic chemicals spill into the water system the wildlif e that depends on that supply suffers. In the case of an oil spill from a tanker, the results are fast and obvious. The oily sludge permeates their fur and feathers handicapping any hope of the animal's survival. This form of pollution is highly visible and causes damage that can be easily measured and evaluated. We can readily see the animals die as they encounter this water pollution. However, other types of pollution that threaten California's wildlife are not so readily apparent. Industrial chemicals that leach into our water supply, streams, and lakes may not be visible to the human eye but threaten to destroy our food chain. They may not kill fish instantly as the fish survive the moderate levels of the toxins that are present. However, many industrial pollutants, build up in the fish and wildlife over time. PCBs, a known carcinogen that is now prohibited, continues to persist in our environment and water supply years after it was banned (Environmental Defense Fund). When a human eats the fish, they ingest the pollutants that have been stored. Consuming this source of food on a regular basis can cause severe health problems and lead to death. Often times when wastewater from a sewage system is improperly discharged into the environment it contaminates a public area that is used for swimming or recreation. This contaminated wastewater carries potentially dangerous viruses, parasites, and bacteria with it. The effects of these waterborne pathogens can be as mild as a case of diarrhea or as serious as meningitis. High fever, liver infection, and birth defects have all been traced to water pollution caused by contaminated wastewater discharged into a public lake or beach (Nester et al). Though these contaminates do occasionally foul our drinking water supply, the most likely contact the public has is at a common recreational area. According to DiGiacomo, Washburn, Holt and Jones, "Treated municipal wastewater from urban areas of the Southern California Bight is commonly discharged into the coastal ocean [...] interfering with human activities near shore such as swimming fishing, and surfing" (1018). The surfactants in these wastewater plumes are primarily man made and include detergents, solvents, and human waste (DiGiacomo et al. 1021). These waste products are toxic to wildlife and humans. The CDC documents all reported cases of illness caused by polluted water and found during the period of 1995-1996 of the 12000 cases of disease caused by contaminated water, a full 75 percent were contracted in a public beach or swimming facility (Nester et al.). These statistics show not only the seriousness of the illnesses associated with water pollution, it also points out the widespread scope of the threat to our public beaches. Often these pollutants are the direct result of improperly disposed of waste near a population center. This carries a serious risk of contaminating a water supply for a city. This has happened many times in large and small